Who can diffuse a tense situation, deliver tough news gracefully, is confident without being arrogant, brave but not reckless, generous but never extravagant.

此人氣場強大，傳遞壞消息時不疾不徐，為人態度不卑不亢、有勇有謀、慷慨卻不奢侈浪費

This is the type of person that everybody wants to be around, and to be like.

這種類型的人是每個人都想接近和效仿的對象

Someone who seems to have mastered the art of being a person.

這個人似乎能完全掌握做人的精髓

This may sound like an impossible feat, but Aristotle believed that, while rare, these people do exist.

雖然這聽起來匪夷所思，但是亞里斯多德相信儘管很稀有，這種人仍是存在的

And they are what we all should aspire to be: virtous.

而這類的人應是所有人渴望想成為的目標：品德高尚的人

And there's a whole moral theory based on this idea of virtue.

有一整套的道德理論是根據對德行的看法而生的

But unlike most of the moral theories we’ve discussed, virtue theory doesn’t spend a lot of time telling you what to do.

不過和大多數道德理論不同之處在於，如同我們先前說過，這套德行理論沒有長篇大論的說明

There’s no categorical imperative or principle of utility.

其中沒有定然律令或是功利原則

Instead, virtue theory is all about character.

相反地，德行理論的內容都在探討品格

Rather than saying, “follow these rules so that you can be a good person,” Aristotle and other virtue theorists reasoned that, if we can just focus on being good people, the right actions will follow, effortlessly.

亞里斯多德和其他德性倫理學者的理解是：只要專注在成為一個好人，自然就會有好人的行為

Become a good person, and you will do good things. No rulebook needed.

而非告訴大家要遵循某些規則。只要成為一個好人，就會做好事，根本不需要指導手冊

So, why should you be a virtuous person?

好，所以為何我們應該要成為有德行的人？

Because: eudaimonia.

原因就是：幸福

[Theme Music]

[主題音樂]

Virtue theory reflects the ancient assumption that human have a fixed nature – an essence – and that the way we flourish is by adhering to that nature.

德行理論反映出古早以來的假設，即人類本性 (本質) 難移，只要堅持本性必能活出自己

Aristotle described this in terms of what he called proper functioning.

亞里斯多德將這樣的概念描述為他所稱的特有功能

Everything has a function, and a thing is good to the extent that it fulfills its function, and bad to the extent that it doesn’t.

世間萬物均有其功能，每樣事物都最擅長發揮其功能，最不擅長其所屬功能以外的能力

This is easy to see in objects created by humans.

這種現象可從人類創造的器具中顯而易見

A function of a knife is to cut, so a dull knife is a bad knife.

刀的用途是用來切東西，因此鈍的刀便不是把好刀

And a function of a flower is to grow and reproduce, so a flower that doesn’t do that is just bad at being a flower.

還有比如說花的功能是生長和繁衍，因此無法達到這些功能的花便不是正常的花

And the same goes for humans – we’re animals – so all the stuff that would indicate proper functioning for an animal holds true for us as well – we need to grow and be healthy and fertile.

在人類身上同理可證：人是動物，因此所有可代表動物的特有功能對我們也適用，人類也需要

But we’re also “the rational animal,” and a social animal, so our function also involves using reason and getting along with our pack.

健康成長和繁衍。然而人類同時也是理性和社會動物，因此我們的功能含包含理解

Now you might notice that some of this sounds like parts of natural law theory – Aquinas' theory that God made us with the tools we need to know what’s Good.

以及和我們的背包相處。現在你可能可以注意到前面提到的有些和大自然的定律很相似 - 阿圭奈

Well, Aristotle had a strong influence on Thomas Aquinas, so part of Aristotle’s thoughts on virtue ended up in natural law theory.

的理論曾說過人類是上帝以認為我們需要學會使用的工具所做出，亞里斯多德受阿圭奈影響很大，因此

But for Aristotle, this isn’t about God’s plan, it’s just about nature.

亞里斯多德部分對德行的看法是以自然定律為結論，不過亞里斯多德認為和神的計畫無關，而是和自然有關

Aristotle argued that nature has built into us the desire to be virtuous, in the same way that acorns are built with the drive to become oak trees.

亞里斯多德辯稱因為我們天生就嚮往德行，如同橡實天生的傾向就是成為一棵橡樹

But what exactly does it mean to be virtuous?

不過究竟有德行是甚麼意思呢？

Aristotle said that having virtue just means doing the right thing, at the right time, in the right way, in the right amount, toward the right people.

亞里斯多德說：所謂有德行不過是在對的時間，以對的方式，向對的人做對的事情罷了

Which sort of sounds like Aristotle is saying exactly nothing.

聽起來亞里斯多德有說跟沒說一樣

I mean, how vague can you be?

我的意思是，這也講得太籠統了吧!

But according to Aristotle, there's no need to be specific, because if you’re virtuous, you know what to do.

根據亞里斯多德的意思，沒有必要講清楚，因為有德行的人都明白該做甚麼事情

All the time.

永遠都是如此

You know how to handle yourself and how to get along with others.

有德行的人知道如何和自己以及別人相處

You have good judgment, you can read a room, and you know what's right and when.

有德行的人有良好的判斷力，他們可以全盤了解狀況，知道在適當的時間做對的事

Aristotle understood virtue as a set of robust character traits that, once developed, will lead to predictably good behavior.

亞里斯多德將德行視為一套健全的人格特質，一旦俱備了，便可預期會有好的行為

You can think of virtue as the midpoint between two extremes, which Aristotle called vices.

大家可以將德行想成是兩個極端的中間點，亞里斯多德將極端部分稱為邪惡領域

Virtue is the just-right amount – the sweet spot between the extreme of excess and the extreme of deficiency.

而德行則是不多不少的位置 - 介於過盛和貧乏中間的最佳點

And this sweet spot is known as the Golden Mean.

這個最佳點也就是所謂的「中庸之道」

So let’s take a look at some particular virtues, starting with courage.

讓我們來看看幾個特殊的德行，從勇氣開始

What is courage?

甚麼是勇氣？

To take a closer look at this, let’s head to the Thought Bubble for some Flash Philosophy.

讓我們仔細看看這個概念，讓我們進入想法泡泡的假設情境一下

Walking home from a movie, you see a person being mugged.

當你在看完電影要回家的路上，看見有人被搶劫

What is the courageous action for you to take?

你會採取甚麼英勇的行為呢？

Your impulse might be to say that a courageous person would run over there and stop the mugging, because courage means putting yourself in harm's way for a good cause, right?

你當下的反應可能會認為勇敢的人應該就是要跑過去並阻止案件發生，是吧？

Well, no.

這是錯的

A virtuous person – in the Aristotelian sense – would first take stock of the situation.

從亞里斯多德的觀點來看，一個有德行的人會先判斷情況

If you size up the mugger and have a good reason to believe that you could safely intervene, then that's probably the courageous choice.

如果你能抓住搶匪並且有足夠的把握你可以安全的介入事件，那才能說是個勇敢的抉擇

But if you assess the situation and recognize that intervention is likely to mean that both you and the victim will be in danger, the courageous choice is not to intervene, but to call for help instead.

但如果你審時度勢，判斷介入事件可能會造成你和受害者均陷於危險之中，就應該要求救

According to Aristotle, courage is the midpoint between the extremes of cowardice and recklessness.

根據亞里斯多德的概念，勇氣是介於怯懦和魯莽之間的中間點：

Cowardice is a deficiency of courage, while recklessness is an excess of courage – and both are bad.

怯懦是因為勇氣不足，而魯莽則是過於有勇氣 - 不過兩者都是過猶不及

Aristotle said that you definitely can have too much of a good thing.

亞里斯多德說我們身上的優點的確很有可能會多到滿出

So, being courageous doesn’t mean rushing headlong into danger.

因此，勇敢的表現並不是一頭栽進危險當中

A courageous person will assess the situation, they’ll know their own abilities, and they’ll take action that is right in the particular situation.

真正的勇者會評估狀況，他們知道自己的能力到哪，並且會在特定的情勢下採取行動

Part of having courage, he argued, is being able to recognize when, rather than stepping in, you need to find an authority who can handle a situation that's too big for you to tackle alone.

亞里斯多德認為部分有勇氣的人是能辨別何時該找可以有能力的當局，來處理你一個人無法處理的狀況

Basically, courage is finding the right way to act.

基本上，勇氣就是找出正確的行動

And a lot of the time – but not all of the time – that means doing a thing that you know you’re capable of, even if doing it scares the pants off of you.

大多數時候，不過不是常態，意味著去做你能力所及的事，即便當下你嚇得四腳發軟

Thanks, Thought Bubble!

謝啦，思考泡泡！

Aristotle thought all virtue works like this.

亞里斯多德認為所有的德行的道理都和這很類似

The right action is always a midpoint between extremes.

正確的行動都落在兩個極端的中間

So, there’s no all-or-nothing in this theory – even honesty.

因此在這套理論中沒有零和遊戲，即便是誠實這件事

In this view, honesty is the perfect midpoint between brutal honesty and failing to say things that need to be said.

根據這樣的標準，誠實應是處於殘酷的誠實和甚麼都不說之間的完美中間點

Like, no one needs to be told that they have a big zit on their face – they already know.

比如說，沒有人需要你告訴他們臉上有顆青春痘這件事，他們自己知道

The virtue of honesty means knowing what needs to be put out there, and what you should keep quiet about.

誠實的德行意味著知道該指出甚麼事情，以及知道該對哪類事情保持沉默

And it also means knowing how to deliver hard truths gracefully.

而這其中也表示需要知道如何優雅地傳達難以啟齒的真相

How to break bad news gently, or to offer criticism in a way that’s constructive, rather than soul-crushing.

如何不疾不徐地發表壞消息，或是提出建設性批評而非毒舌攻擊

The virtue of generosity works the same way.

慷慨的德性也是類似

It avoids the obvious vice of stinginess, but also doesn’t give too much.

既要避免吝嗇，但也不能出手過度大方

It’s not generous to give drugs to an addict, or to buy a round of drinks for everyone in the bar when you need that money for rent.

好比提供毒品給上癮者，或是當你自己都快付不出房租時還幫酒吧所有的人買單，這些都不叫慷慨

The just right amount of generosity means giving when you have it, to those who need it.

真正的慷慨是表示將你已擁有的東西提供給需要的人

It can mean having the disposition to give just for the heck of it, but it also means realizing when you can’t, or shouldn’t give.

慷慨可以說是出自本意給予，不過你也要清楚究竟可不可以，該不該做這件事

So now you can see why Aristotle’s definition of virtue was totally vague – where that Golden Mean is depends on the situation.

所以大家現在了解亞里斯多德對於德行的定義實在超級模糊，中庸之道還要視情況而定!

But, if you have to figure out what virtue is in every situation, how can you possibly ever learn to be virtuous?

如果你需要在各種情況下思考怎樣才是德行，那你怎麼可能知道怎樣才叫有德行勒

Aristotle thought there was a lot that you could learn from books, but how to be a good person was not one of them.

亞里斯多德認為雖然我們可以從書中學習到很多東西，但卻無法從中學會要如何成為一個有德行的人

He said virtue is a skill, a way of living, and that’s something that can really only be learned through experience.

他說德行是門技術、一種謀生方式，並且只能透過經驗來學習

Virtue is a kind of knowledge that he called practical wisdom.

德行是屬於一種他稱為實踐智慧的知識

You might think of it as kind of like street smarts.

你可以想成類似街頭生存法則的概念

And the thing about street smarts is that you gotta learn ‘em on the street.

街頭生存法則的概念就是你要從街頭學習經驗

But the good news is, you don’t have to do it alone.

不過好消息是，你不需要獨自一人學習

Aristotle said your character is developed through habituation.

亞里斯多德說我們的品格可以經由適應來培養

If you do a virtuous thing over and over again, eventually it will become part of your character.

如果你一而再再而三的從事有德行的事情，最終就會成為你品格的一部分

But the way you know what the right thing to do is in the first place, is by finding someone who already knows, and emulating them.

不過要知道該做哪些正確的事，首先是要找到已懂得的人，模仿他們的行為

These people who already possess virtue are moral exemplars, and according to this theory, we are built with the ability to recognize them, and the desire to emulate them.

根據理論，我們天生就有能識別那些已俱備德行和道德典範的人的能力，並且渴望模仿這些行為

So you learn virtue by watching it, and then doing it.

因此學習德行是透過看和做來學習

In the beginning, it'll be hard, and maybe it’ll feel fake, because you’re just copying someone who's better than you at being a good person.

剛開始會很困難，因為你會覺得假假的，畢竟你只是在模仿別人如何成為好人的行為

But over time, these actions will become an ingrained part of your character.

但是時間越長，這些行動將成為深植在你的品格之中

And eventually, it becomes that robust trait that Aristotle was talking about.

最終就會形成亞里斯多德所說的健全的人格了

It'll just manifest every time you need it.

這些行為會在你需要的時候自然展現出來

That's when you know you have virtue, fully realized. It becomes effortless.

不過這也得當你知道你俱備德行且完全理解後，才會覺得毫不費力

OK but: Why? What's your motivation?

好的，但是，為什麼？你的動機為何？

What if you have no desire to be the guy who always says the right thing, or the lady who always finds the courage when it's needed?

萬一你並不想成為一個總是知道該說正確話做正確事的人，或是成為一個沒勇氣的人該怎麼辦呢？

Virtue theory says that you should become virtuous because, if you are, then you can attain the pinnacle of humanity.

德行理論說道：你應該要成為有德行的人，原因是如此你便可到達人性的巔峰

It allows you to achieve what's known as eudaimonia.

可以讓你成就所謂的 eudaimonia (幸福)

This is a cool Greek word that doesn’t have a simple English translation.

這是一個很酷的希臘字，沒有簡單的對應英文翻譯

You might say it means “a life well lived.”

你可以說它的意思是「美好的人生」

It’s sometimes translated as “human flourishing.”

有時會將這個字翻譯成「自我實現」

And a life of eudaimonia is a life of striving.

而自我實現的人生是奮鬥的人生

It’s a life of pushing yourself to your limits, and finding success.

將自己推向極限，尋求成功

A eudaimonistic life will be full of the happiness that comes from achieving something really difficult, rather than just having it handed to you.

自我實現的人生將充滿幸福感，因為它來自於克服困難而非唾手可得的事情

But choosing to live a eudaimonistic life means that you’re never done improving, you’re never to a point where you can just coast.

但是選擇過自我實現的人生意味著你永遠無法超越，永遠無法到達可以暫時歇息的地方

You’re constantly setting new goals, and working to develop new muscles.

你會經常設定新目標，發展新的能力

Choosing to live life in this way also means you'll face disappointments, and failures.

選擇這樣的生活方式也意味著你會面臨失望和失敗

Eudaimonia doesn’t mean a life of cupcakes and rainbows.

自我實現並非代表一帆風順生活

It means the sweet pleasure of sinking into bed at the end of an absolutely exhausting day.

而是代表當你在經歷超級累的一天後倒進被窩的一種甜蜜的負擔

It’s the satisfaction of knowing you’ve accomplished a lot, and that you’ve pushed yourself to be the very best person you could be.

一種知道自己完成了許多事情後，讓自己成為更好的人的滿足感

This is morality, for Aristotle.

對亞里斯多德而言，這就是道德

It’s being the best person you can be, honing your strengths while working on your weaknesses.

就個人而言，好處是你可以同時鍛鍊自己的強項和弱項

And, for Aristotle, the kind of person who lives like this, is the kind of person who will do good things.

對亞里斯多德而言，這樣生活的人就是會做好事的人

Today we learned about virtue theory.

今天我們學到了德行理論

We studied the Golden Mean, and how it exists as a midpoint between vices of excess and deficiency.

我們學到了中庸之道，以及它如何做為中間點存在於過度和貧乏的兩個極端之間

We talked about moral exemplars, and the life of eudaimonia that comes with virtuousness.

我們還談到道德典範，以及出自德行的自我實現人生觀

Next time, we’re going to consider a tricky little problem in ethics known as moral luck.

下次我們將會探討倫理學中一個弔詭的小問題，稱為道德運氣

Crash Course Philosophy is produced in association with PBS Digital Studios.

令人傻眼的哲學課程是和 PBS Digital Studio 聯合製作

You can head over to their channel to check out a playlist of the latest episodes from shows like:

你可以到 PBS Digital Studio 的頻道尋找節目最新集數

PBS Space Time, BBQ with Franklin, and PBS OffBook.

PBS Space Time、BBQ with Franklin 以及 PBS OffBook

This episode of Crash Course was filmed in the Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio

本集瘋狂課程是在 Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio 錄製

with the help of all of these awesome people and our equally fantastic graphics team is Thought Cafe.

感謝許多超棒的人員以及我們超讚的圖像團隊 Thought Cafe 幫忙