Crabs wave their claws at each other to signal that they're healthy and ready to mate.

螃蟹相互揮舞它們的雙螯，表示自己身體健康，已準備好交配

Cuttlefish use pigmented skin cells called chromatophores to create patterns on their skin that act as camouflage, or warnings to rivals.

當烏賊遇到危險或敵人時，可用皮膚中的色素細胞幫自己變裝，以便躲藏或給予警告

Honeybees perform complex dances to let other bees know the location and quality of a food source.

蜜蜂跳著高難度的舞蹈，告知夥伴食物的位置和品質

All of these animals have impressive communication systems,

這些動物都具有獨特的溝通系統

but do they have language?

但牠們是否具有語言呢？

To answer that question,

要回答這個問題

we can look at four specific qualities that are often associated with language,

我們可先來說說，語言的四種特質

discreteness,

分立性、

grammar,

規則性、

productivity,

創新性、

and displacement.

和置換性

Discreteness means that there is a set of individual units, such as sounds or words

「分立性」的意思是，語言具有獨立的元件，例如聲音或字詞

that can be combined to communicate new ideas,

可以經由組合而產生新的意思

like a set of refrigerator poetry magnets you can rearrange to create different phrases.

就像冰箱上的單字磁鐵一樣，你可以將它重新排列，創造不同的片語

Grammar provides a system of rules that tells you how to combine those individual units.

「規則性」指該語言具有組合那些單字的文法規則

Productivity is the ability to use language to create an infinite number of messages.

「創新性」是指，語言使用者具有表達無數訊息的能力

And displacement is the ability to talk about things that aren't right in front of you,

「置換性」則是指語言使用者具有談論非當前事件的能力

such as past, future, or fictional events.

像是過去、未來或虛構事件

So, does animal communication exhibit any of these qualities?

那麼，動物的溝通系統，是否具備上述任何特質？

For crabs and cuttlefish, the answer is no.

螃蟹和烏賊沒有

They don't combine their signals in creative ways.

因為牠們無法表達創新的訊息

Those signals also don't have to be in a grammatical order,

牠們的訊息也不具文法結構

and they only communicate current conditions like, "I am healthy," or "I am poisonous."

而且牠們只能表達當前的狀態，像是「我身體健康」或「我有毒」

But some animals actually do display some of these properties.

然而，確實有些動物具有一些語言特質

Bees use the moves, angle, duration, and intensity of their waggle dance

例如，蜜蜂透過八字形搖擺舞的舞姿、角度、時間和力道

to describe the location and richness of a food source.

描述食物的位置和多寡

That source is outside the hive,

因為所描述的食物位於蜂巢之外的他處

so they exhibit the property of displacement.

所以說，牠們具有「置換性」的特質

They share that language trait with prairie dogs which live in towns of thousands

土撥鼠也具有這樣的特質，牠們一個聚落有上千個同類

and are hunted by coyotes, hawks, badgers, snakes, and humans.

郊狼、鷹、獾、蛇和人類是牠們的天敵

Their alarms calls indicate the predator's size, shape, speed

他們吱吱的叫聲，可表達掠食者的大小、體型、移動速度

and, even for human predators, what the person is wearing

甚至是人類穿甚麼衣服

and if he's carrying a gun.

以及是否配槍

Great apes, like chimps and gorillas, are great communicators, too.

像黑猩猩和大猩猩，這類的大型猿類動物，也善於溝通

Some have even learned a modified sign language.

有些甚至學會利用手語，來表達自己

A chimpanzee named Washoe demonstrated discreteness

一隻叫華秀的黑猩猩，組合多個手勢

by combining multiple signs into original phrases like, "Please open. Hurry."

比出「快幫我開門」的句子，這顯示了「分立性」的語言特質

Coco, a female gorilla who understands more than 1000 signs

另一隻叫可可的雌性大猩猩，能理解超過 1000 條手語單詞

and around 2000 words of spoken English,

以及約莫 2000 個英文單字

referred to a beloved kitten that had died.

在牠心愛的小貓去世後，用手語比出牠難過的心情

In doing so, she displayed displacement,

雖然這顯示出「置換性」的特質

though it's worth noting that the apes in both of these examples were using a human communication system,

但兩隻猩猩學的，都是人類的溝通系統，並非天生具有的能力

not one that appeared naturally in the wild.

不是在自然狀態下產生的

There are many other examples of sophisticated animal communication,

還有很多其他動物，具有複雜的溝通系統

such as in dolphins

像是海豚

which use whistles to identify age, location, names, and gender.

利用對方的鳴叫聲，辨識出牠的年齡、位置、名字和性別

They can also understand some grammar in a gestural language researchers use to communicate with them.

海豚研究員用手語和牠們互動時，牠們也能了解其中一些文法

However, grammar is not seen in the dolphin's natural communication.

然而，文法並不存在於海豚天生的溝通系統中

While these communication systems may have some of the qualities of language we've identified,

以上這些動物的溝通系統或許真的具備了一些語言特質

none display all four.

但並不俱全

Even Washoe and Coco's impressive abilities are still outpaced

華秀和可可驚人的能力

by the language skills of most three-year-old humans.

還是遠遠輸給了一個三歲小孩的語言能力

And animals' topics of conversation are usually limited.

而且動物交流的內容廣泛度通常是有限的

Bees talk about food,

蜜蜂總是關切著食物

prairie dogs talk about predators,

土撥鼠離不開天敵的問題

and crabs talk about themselves.

而螃蟹的話題都圍繞在自己身上

Human language stands alone

只有人類的語言具備所有特質

due to the powerful combination of grammar and productivity on top of discreteness and displacement.

除了「分立性」和「置換性」之外，還有「規則性」和「創新性」強化了我們的溝通能力

The human brain can take a finite number of elements and create an infinite number of messages.

人類能用有限的文字量創造出不計其數的訊息

We can craft and understand complex sentences

我們能夠精巧地創造及理解複雜的句子

as well as words that have never been spoken before.

還能創造出新的單字

We can use language to communicate about an endless range of subjects,

我們可以無邊無際地暢所欲言

talk about imaginary things and even lie.

談論著自己的幻想世界，甚至能說謊

Research continues to reveal more and more about animal communication.

更多關於動物溝通的研究持續公布於世

It may turn out that human language and animal communication aren't entirely different but exist on a continuum.

也許最後會發現，人類的語言和動物的溝通系統並非完全不同，而是有關聯的

After all, we are all animals.

畢竟，我們都是動物