point. Critical readers are those who can evaluate an author’s support for a point

and determine whether that support is solid or not.

This lesson will extend your ability to read critically in three ways:

Separating fact from opinion, Detecting propaganda, and

Recognizing errors in reasoning.

First we’ll look at the difference between fact and opinion.

A fact is information that can be proved true through objective evidence.

Facts can be checked for accuracy and thus proved true.

Here is an example of a fact:

“At least four out of five adults will experience lower back pain at some point in their lives.”

Extensive medical research confirms that this statement is true.

An opinion is a belief, judgment, or conclusion that cannot be objectively proved true.

Here is an example of an opinion:

“The best treatment for lower back pain is physical therapy.”

There is no consensus in the scientific community that this is true. Medication, exercise, surgery,

and acupuncture are among the treatments recommended by experts.

It is important to remember that much of what we read and hear is a mixture of fact and opinion.

Now we’ll look at a second way to extend your ability to read critically—by detecting

propaganda.

When advertisers, salespeople, and politicians say, “Buy our product” or “Vote for

me,” they often lack adequate factual support for their points. Instead, they appeal to

our emotions by using propaganda techniques.

Part of being a critical reader is having the ability to recognize these propaganda

techniques for the emotional fluff that they are.

The most common type of propaganda technique is transfer, in which products or candidates

try to associate themselves with something that people admire or love.

This picture is an example of transfer.

Here, a political candidate wearing an American flag and saying “Vote for Me” is accompanied

by a beauty queen wrapped in a U.S.A. banner. The candidate is hoping that the positive

feelings we have toward the sexy-looking beauty queen and the patriotism stirred in us by

the American flag and the U.S.A. banner will be transferred to him and get us to vote for

him.

Chapter 9 in the textbook will tell you more about transfer, as well as five other propaganda

techniques.

Bandwagon Testimonial

Plain Folks Name Calling

and Glittering Generalities

There are other propaganda techniques as well. But these six are the most common.

Now we will look at some common errors in reasoning—also known as fallacies—that

take the place of the real support needed in an argument.

A valid point is based on a rock-like foundation of solid support; a fallacious point is based

on a house of cards that offers no real support at all.

One common fallacy is called circular reasoning.

In an argument using circular reasoning, the supporting reason is really the same as the

conclusion. Such evidence is illogical.

Here is a simple and obvious example of such reasoning: “Alan Gordon is a great manager

because he is so wonderful at managing.” The supporting reason (“he is so wonderful

at managing”) is really the same as the conclusion (“Alan Gordon is a great manager”).

We still do not know why he is a great manager. No real reasons have been given—the statement

has merely repeated itself.

Circular reasoning is a fallacy that ignores the issue.

Another common fallacy is called false cause. This is a fallacy that oversimplifies the

issue.

The fallacy known as false cause occurs when one assumes that because event B follows event

A, event B was caused by event A. Look at this example:

“My favorite TV show was moved to a different time slot this season. No wonder it’s now

getting canceled.”

But there could be reasons other than the

move to a new time slot for the program’s getting canceled. Perhaps the show has less

competent writers or perhaps a favorite actor has left the show. In any case, it’s dangerous

to assume that just because A came before B, A caused B.

Chapter 9 in the textbook will tell you more about these two fallacies.

It will also explain two more common fallacies that ignore the issue.

Personal Attack and Straw man And two more common fallacies that oversimplify

the issue. False Comparison and Either-Or

In all of these fallacies a point is argued. But no true support is offered for that point.

To summarize, in this lesson you learned that critical readers evaluate an author’s support

for a point and determine whether that support is solid or not. Critical reading includes

the following three abilities:

Separating fact from opinion. A fact is information that can be proved true through objective

evidence. An opinion is a belief, judgment, or conclusion that cannot be proved objectively

true.

Detecting propaganda. Advertisers, salespeople, and politicians often try to promote their

points by appealing to our emotions rather than our powers of reason. To do so, they

practice six common propaganda techniques: bandwagon, testimonial, transfer, plain folks,

name calling, and glittering generalities.

Recognizing errors in reasoning. Politicians and others are at times guilty of errors in

reasoning—fallacies—that take the place of the real support needed in an argument.

Such fallacies include circular reasoning, personal attack, straw man, false cause, false

comparison, and either-or.