about the pleasures of everyday life.

有關日常生活的快樂

But I want to begin with a story

但我想先說一則關於

of an unusual and terrible man.

一位特殊又可怕的人的故事

This is Hermann Goering.

他是赫曼．戈林(Hermann Goering)

Goering was Hitler's second in command in World War II,

戈林是希特勒在二戰時期的副司令官

his designated successor.

也是他指定的接班人

And like Hitler,

和希特勒一樣

Goering fancied himself a collector of art.

戈林也自認自己是一位愛好藝術的收藏家

He went through Europe, through World War II,

他在二戰時期，走遍歐洲

stealing, extorting and occasionally buying

竊取，強奪，偶爾購買

various paintings for his collection.

不同的畫作作為私人收藏

And what he really wanted was something by Vermeer.

而當中他最想擁有的是維梅爾 (Vermeer) 的作品

Hitler had two of them, and he didn't have any.

希特勒收藏了其中兩幅，而他一幅也沒有

So he finally found an art dealer,

後來他終於找上了一位藝術品經銷商

a Dutch art dealer named Han van Meegeren,

一位名叫漢‧凡‧米格倫 (Han van Meegeren) 的荷蘭畫商

who sold him a wonderful Vermeer

他賣給他一幅完美的維梅爾的作品

for the cost of what would now be 10 million dollars.

該作品估計現值一千萬美元

And it was his favorite artwork ever.

該作品也是戈林的最愛

World War II came to an end,

二戰結束時

and Goering was captured, tried at Nuremberg

戈林被捕，在紐倫堡審判

and ultimately sentenced to death.

而最終被判死刑

Then the allied forces went through his collections

後來盟軍審查了他的收藏品

and found the paintings

找到那些畫作

and went after the people who sold it to him.

逮捕了當時販售畫作給他的人

And at some point the Dutch police came into Amsterdam

某天荷蘭警方到阿姆斯特丹

and arrested Van Meegeren.

逮捕了凡‧米格倫

Van Meegeren was charged with the crime of treason,

凡‧米格倫被控叛國罪

which is itself punishable by death.

叛國罪是會被判處死刑

Six weeks into his prison sentence,

米格倫在監獄服刑的六星期裡

Van Meegeren confessed.

他坦承犯罪

But he didn't confess to treason.

但他並非認了叛國罪

He said, "I did not sell a great masterpiece

他說：「我並沒有販賣偉大的畫作

to that Nazi.

給那個納粹

I painted it myself; I'm a forger."

那是我自己畫的，我是一名仿畫家。」

Now nobody believed him.

沒有人相信他

And he said, "I'll prove it.

然後他說：「我可以證明的

Bring me a canvas and some paint,

給我一些畫布和顏料

and I will paint a Vermeer much better

我可以畫出一幅

than I sold that disgusting Nazi.

比我賣給那令人厭惡的納粹更好的維梅爾作品

I also need alcohol and morphine, because it's the only way I can work."

我還需要酒和嗎啡，因為這樣我才能工作。」

(Laughter)

(笑聲)

So they brought him in.

所以他們給了他這些東西

He painted a beautiful Vermeer.

他也畫出了一幅美麗的維梅爾畫作

And then the charges of treason were dropped.

後來叛國的罪名就撤銷了

He had a lesser charge of forgery,

他被判了一個較輕的偽造罪

got a year sentence

判刑一年

and died a hero to the Dutch people.

死後成為荷蘭人民的英雄

There's a lot more to be said about Van Meegeren,

關於凡‧米格倫還有很多事情可以說

but I want to turn now to Goering,

但我想回來談戈林

who's pictured here being interrogated at Nuremberg.

照片裡的他在紐倫堡被審問

Now Goering was, by all accounts, a terrible man.

戈林，據所有的罪狀，是一個可怕的人

Even for a Nazi, he was a terrible man.

就算是對納粹分子而言，他還是個可怕的人

His American interrogators described him

他的美籍審問官形容他

as an amicable psychopath.

是一名友善的精神變態者

But you could feel sympathy

但各位可以對他感到同情的是

for the reaction he had

他的反應

when he was told that his favorite painting

當他被告知他最愛的畫作

was actually a forgery.

其實是幅仿畫

According to his biographer,

據他的傳記作者所說

"He looked as if for the first time

「他看上去好像是

he had discovered there was evil in the world."

他第一次發現有世界上有邪惡的事。」

(Laughter)

(笑聲)

And he killed himself soon afterwards.

之後他很快地就自殺了

He had discovered after all

他後來發現

that the painting he thought was this

他原先以為的這幅畫

was actually that.

事實上是這一幅

It looked the same,

這看起來是相同的

but it had a different origin, it was a different artwork.

但來源不同，這是完全不同的畫作

It wasn't just him who was in for a shock.

不單是他感到驚訝

Once Van Meegeren was on trial, he couldn't stop talking.

某次凡‧米格倫受訊時，他不由自主地說出

And he boasted about all the great masterpieces

他吹噓所有其他藝術家所創作的

that he himself had painted

偉大的畫作

that were attributed to other artists.

都是他一個人所畫

In particular, "The Supper at Emmaus"

其中特別是《在伊默斯的晚餐》

which was viewed as Vermeer's finest masterpiece, his best work --

這幅被視為是維梅爾最優秀的作品，他的鉅作

people would come from all over the world to see it --

這幅眾人願意從世界各地前去觀賞的作品

was actually a forgery.

其實是幅仿畫

It was not that painting, but that painting.

不是這一幅，而是這一幅

And when that was discovered,

當真相被發現後

it lost all its value and was taken away from the museum.

這幅畫失去了價值，也從博物館裡撤下

Why does this matter?

為什麼會這樣？

You psychologists, why do origins matter so much?

心理學家們，為什麼來源如此重要？

Why do we respond so much

為何我們對於所知的事物

to our knowledge of where something comes from?

來自何處的反應如此大？

Well there's an answer to that many people would give.

大部分的人會說一個答案

Many sociologists like Veblen and Wolfe

很多社會學家像是 Veblen 和 Wolfe 會認為

would argue that the reason why we take origins so seriously

我們之所以如此看重事物來自何處

is because we're snobs, because we're focused on status.

是因為我們很勢利，我們看重地位

Among other things,

除此之外

if you want to show off how rich you are, how powerful you are,

如果你想展現自己的財力和權力

it's always better to own an original than a forgery

當然擁有一幅真跡會比擁有一幅仿畫來的好

because there's always going to be fewer originals than forgeries.

因為和仿畫比起來，真跡只會越來越少

I don't doubt that that plays some role,

我不否認這或多或少有些關聯

but what I want to convince you of today

但我今天想告訴各位的是

is that there's something else going on.

這當中還有別的原因

I want to convince you

我想讓各位知道

that humans are, to some extent, natural born essentialists.

人類，其實就某些層面而言，我們是天生的本質主義者

What I mean by this

我的意思是

is we don't just respond to things as we see them,

我們對於物件的反應不只是我們看見他們

or feel them, or hear them.

感受到他們，或聽見他們

Rather, our response is conditioned on our beliefs,

相反地，我們的反應來自我們對該物件的認知

but what they really are, what they came from,

他們本質，他們的來源

what they're made of, what their hidden nature is.

他們的材質，以及他們的潛在特性

I want to suggest that this is true,

我想說這是真實的

not just for how we think about things,

不單是我們如何看待物品

but how we react to things.

而是我們對物品的反應

So I want to suggest that pleasure is deep --

我想傳達的是，快樂其實是深層的

and that this isn't true

這並非

just for higher level pleasures like art,

只針對像是藝術這種較高層次的快樂

but even the most seemingly simple pleasures

而是即便是看似最簡單的快樂

are affected by our beliefs about hidden essences.

也都受到我們對於物品潛在本質的認知的影響

So take food.

拿食物來說

Would you eat this?

各位想吃這塊肉嗎？

Well, a good answer is, "It depends. What is it?"

一個好的答案是「要看這是什麼肉？」

Some of you would eat it if it's pork, but not beef.

如果不是牛肉，而是豬肉，某些人會吃

Some of you would eat it if it's beef, but not pork.

如果不是豬肉，而是牛肉，也有某些人會吃

Few of you would eat it if it's a rat

如果是老鼠肉

or a human.

或人肉，極少數的人也會吃

Some of you would eat it only if it's a strangely colored piece of tofu.

而如果是一塊奇怪顏色的豆腐，也有某些人會吃

That's not so surprising.

這一點都不需要驚訝

But what's more interesting

更有趣的是

is how it tastes to you

這塊肉對我們來說味道如何

will depend critically on what you think you're eating.

取決於我們認為我們在吃什麼

So one demonstration of this was done with young children.

以幼童當作例子來看

How do you make children

要如何讓孩童

not just be more likely to eat carrots and drink milk,

不僅僅能多吃紅蘿蔔和多喝牛奶

but to get more pleasure from eating carrots and drinking milk --

更要讓他們在吃紅蘿蔔和喝牛奶時覺得快樂

to think they taste better?

覺得這兩樣東西更好吃？

It's simple, you tell them they're from McDonald's.

很簡單，你就告訴他們這兩樣東西是從麥當勞買來的

They believe McDonald's food is tastier,

他們相信麥當勞的食物比較好吃

and it leads them to experience it as tastier.

這點讓他們覺得所吃的東西比較美味

How do you get adults to really enjoy wine?

那要如何讓成人真正享受紅酒呢？

It's very simple:

非常簡單：

pour it from an expensive bottle.

就把酒從很貴的酒瓶倒出來

There are now dozens, perhaps hundreds of studies showing

現在有幾十個，可能是上百個研究顯示

that if you believe you're drinking the expensive stuff,

如果你相信你在喝昂貴的東西

it tastes better to you.

你會覺得它的味道更好

This was recently done with a neuroscientific twist.

最近有個用神經科學方式的實驗

They get people into a dMRI scanner,

他們讓人躺進 dMRI 掃描儀

and while they're lying there, through a tube,

當人躺在那裡，通過一根管子

they get to sip wine.

他們可以喝酒

In front of them on a screen is information about the wine.

而在他們面前的螢幕則會顯示關於他們喝的酒的資訊

Everybody, of course,

每一個人

drinks exactly the same wine.

喝的都是同樣的酒

But if you believe you're drinking expensive stuff,

但如果你相信你在喝昂貴的酒

parts of the brain associated with pleasure and reward

大腦掌管快樂和回報的區塊

light up like a Christmas tree.

就像點亮聖誕樹一樣興奮起來

It's not just that you say it's more pleasurable, you say you like it more,

這不只是你說你比較快樂，或你比較喜歡

you really experience it in a different way.

而是你用不同的方式在感受這件事

Or take sex.

就性別來說

These are stimuli I've used in some of my studies.

這是我曾用在某些研究裡的刺激方式

And if you simply show people these pictures,

如果單純讓人們看這些照片

they'll say these are fairly attractive people.

他們會說這些人相當地有魅力

But how attractive you find them,

但你認為他們多有魅力

how sexually or romantically moved you are by them,

多性感，多麼令你覺得浪漫

rests critically on who you think you're looking at.

關鍵在於你覺得你正在看誰

You probably think the picture on the left is male,

你也許認為左邊這張圖是男性

the one on the right is female.

右邊這張圖是女性

If that belief turns out to be mistaken, it will make a difference.

但如果這樣的認知是錯誤的，那將是完全不同的感受

(Laughter)

(笑聲)

It will make a difference if they turn out to be

如果他們比各位想的還要年輕或年長

much younger or much older than you think they are.

也會有不同的結果

It will make a difference if you were to discover

如果你發現你用慾望的角度看的人

that the person you're looking at with lust

其實是你的兒子或女兒

is actually a disguised version of your son or daughter,

或你的母親或父親的變裝照

your mother or father.

感受也是截然不同的

Knowing somebody's your kin typically kills the libido.

獲悉某人是你的親人通常會扼殺掉慾望

Maybe one of the most heartening findings

也許其中最令人振奮的發現是

from the psychology of pleasure

心理學上的快樂

is there's more to looking good than your physical appearance.

是你看起來比外表更好看

If you like somebody, they look better to you.

如果你喜歡某人，你看他們就會覺得比較好看

This is why spouses in happy marriages

這就為何在幸福的婚姻裡

tend to think that their husband or wife

配偶們都會認為他們的另一半

looks much better than anyone else thinks that they do.

遠比別人認為的還要好看許多

(Laughter)

(笑聲)

A particularly dramatic example of this

一個特別典型的例子

comes from a neurological disorder known as Capgras syndrome.

是神經系統疾病，稱做卡波格拉斯症候群

So Capgras syndrome is a disorder

卡波格拉斯症候群是一種精神疾病

where you get a specific delusion.

讓人有特定的幻覺

Sufferers of Capgras syndrome

卡波格拉斯症候群的病人

believe that the people they love most in the world

相信這世界上他們最愛的人

have been replaced by perfect duplicates.

被人給完美的冒充了

Now often, a result of Capgras syndrome is tragic.

卡波格拉斯症候群常有悲慘的事

People have murdered those that they loved,

他們把他們最愛的人給殺害

believing they were murdering an imposter.

因為他們相信他們殺害的是一位冒充者

But there's at least one case

但至少有一個病例

where Capgras syndrome had a happy ending.

一位卡波格拉斯症候的病人有了美滿的結局

This was recorded in 1931.

這是1931年的一個紀錄

"Research described a woman with Capgras syndrome

研究裡一位患有卡波格拉斯症候群的女性

who complained about her poorly endowed and sexually inadequate lover."

抱怨她那位天資不足且缺乏魅力的情人

But that was before she got Capgras syndrome.

但這是在她罹患卡波格拉斯症候群之前

After she got it, "She was happy to report

在她罹患此精神疾病後，「她開心的說

that she has discovered that he possessed a double

她發現他擁有兩倍的優點

who was rich, virile, handsome and aristocratic."

是一位富有，強健，貴族般的情人。」

Of course, it was the same man,

當然，她口中說的是同一位男人

but she was seeing him in different ways.

但她卻用不同的眼光看他

As a third example,

第三個例子

consider consumer products.

談談消費產品

So one reason why you might like something is its utility.

你喜歡東西的其中一個原因可能是其功用

You can put shoes on your feet; you can play golf with golf clubs;

你可以把鞋穿在腳上；你可以用這套高球球具打高爾夫球

and chewed up bubble gum doesn't do anything at all for you.

而嚼泡泡糖則對你一點用處也沒有

But each of these three objects has value

但這三樣東西

above and beyond what it can do for you

根據他們的來歷

based on its history.

都有超乎其功用的價值

The golf clubs were owned by John F. Kennedy

這套高球球具原是甘迺迪所有

and sold for three-quarters of a million dollars at auction.

在一次拍賣會上以七十五萬美元賣出

The bubble gum was chewed up by pop star Britney Spears

這泡泡糖是流行明星小甜甜布蘭妮嚼過的

and sold for several hundreds of dollars.

後來賣了幾百塊美元

And in fact, there's a thriving market

事實上，心愛的人吃過的食物

in the partially eaten food of beloved people.

也是很有市場的

(Laughter)

(笑聲)

The shoes are perhaps the most valuable of all.

這雙鞋可能是三樣裡最有價值的

According to an unconfirmed report,

根據未經證實的報導

a Saudi millionaire offered 10 million dollars

一位沙烏地阿拉伯的富翁花了一千萬美元

for this pair of shoes.

賣了這雙鞋

They were the ones thrown at George Bush

這就是那雙在幾年前在伊拉克

at an Iraqi press conference several years ago.

一場記者會上丟布希的鞋子

(Applause)

(掌聲)

Now this attraction to objects

而這種物品產生的吸引力

doesn't just work for celebrity objects.

並非只發生在有名的物品

Each one of us, most people,

我們每一個人，大部分的人

have something in our life that's literally irreplaceable,

都有某些東西是無法被取代的

in that it has value because of its history --

這些東西的價值來自於物品的背景

maybe your wedding ring, maybe your child's baby shoes --

也許是你的婚戒，也是你孩子嬰兒時穿的鞋

so that if it was lost, you couldn't get it back.

所以如果東西遺失了，你無法找回

You could get something that looked like it or felt like it,

你可能可以找到看起來或摸起來類似的物品

but you couldn't get the same object back.

但你無法找回一模一樣的東西

With my colleagues George Newman and Gil Diesendruck,

與我的同事 George Newman 和 Gil Diesendruck 一起

we've looked to see what sort of factors, what sort of history, matters

我們希望了解是什麼樣的因素，什麼樣的背景，原因

for the objects that people like.

會讓人喜歡物品

So in one of our experiments,

所以在我們某一個實驗裡

we asked people to name a famous person who they adored,

我們請人們說出他們喜歡的名人

a living person they adored.

一位他們崇拜的還在世的人

So one answer was George Clooney.

其中有人回答喬治克隆尼

Then we asked them,

然後我們問他們

"How much would you pay for George Clooney's sweater?"

「你願意花多少錢買喬治克隆尼的毛衣？」

And the answer is a fair amount --

答案是一筆相當多的金額

more than you would pay for a brand new sweater

比起買一件全新的毛衣還要多

or a sweater owned by somebody who you didn't adore.

也比你不崇拜的人所擁有的毛衣還多

Then we asked other groups of subjects --