I brought along with me an abalone shell.

我帶來了一個鮑魚殼。

This abalone shell is a biocomposite material

這個鮑魚殼是一個生物複合材料，

that's 98 percent by mass calcium carbonate

它百分之98的質量是由碳酸鈣組成

and two percent by mass protein.

另外百分之二是蛋白質。

Yet, it's 3,000 times tougher

但是比起其他在同個地方成長的物質﹐

than its geological counterpart.

它卻硬了三千倍。

And a lot of people might use structures like abalone shells,

而且很多人或許會利用類似齙魚殼的東西，

like chalk.

像是粉筆。

I've been fascinated by how nature makes materials,

我對大自然如何製造材料感到著迷﹐

and there's a lot of sequence

對於如此精巧的工作﹐

to how they do such an exquisite job.

需要透過許多步驟才能完成。

Part of it is that these materials

部份的原因是因為這些材料

are macroscopic in structure,

雖然在結構上是肉眼可見的，

but they're formed at the nanoscale.

但卻是在奈米尺度下形成。

They're formed at the nanoscale,

它們是在奈米尺度下形成的，

and they use proteins that are coded by the genetic level

而且它們利用基因編碼的蛋白質

that allow them to build these really exquisite structures.

讓它們能夠製造出這些如此精巧的結構。

So something I think is very fascinating

所以讓我感到非常著迷的是

is what if you could give life

如果你可以將生命賦予給

to non-living structures,

無生命結構，

like batteries and like solar cells?

像是電池和太陽能電池？

What if they had some of the same capabilities

又或他們擁有些像鮑魚殼一樣

that an abalone shell did,

的能力，

in terms of being able

就是說可以

to build really exquisite structures

在室溫及室壓下

at room temperature and room pressure,

利用無毒化學物質，

using non-toxic chemicals

再加上無毒材料

and adding no toxic materials back into the environment?

來製造非常精巧的結構。

So that's the vision that I've been thinking about.

這是我正在想的願景。

And so what if you could grow a battery in a petri dish?

如果可以在培養皿內製造電池會是怎樣的呢？

Or, what if you could give genetic information to a battery

又或如果你可以給電池基因訊息

so that it could actually become better

讓它可以隨著時間

as a function of time,

表現更好，

and do so in an environmentally friendly way?

而且又是用環保的方法﹖

And so, going back to this abalone shell,

所以﹐講回這個鮑魚殼，

besides being nano-structured,

除了是奈米結構，

one thing that's fascinating,

另外一個有趣的是

is when a male and a female abalone get together,

當一公和一母的鮑魚相會時，

they pass on the genetic information

他們會把「如何建造出這種精巧材料」的

that says, "This is how to build an exquisite material.

基因訊息傳遞下去。

Here's how to do it at room temperature and pressure,

這就是如何在室溫室壓下利用

using non-toxic materials."

無毒物質生產。」

Same with diatoms, which are shone right here, which are glasseous structures.

在矽藻上也是一樣，就是這種玻璃般的結構。

Every time the diatoms replicate,

每一次矽藻分裂，

they give the genetic information that says,

他們就會把這樣的基因訊息傳遞下去：

"Here's how to build glass in the ocean

「這是如何在海裡製造玻璃。

that's perfectly nano-structured.

完全是奈米尺度的。

And you can do it the same, over and over again."

而且你可以一而再、再而三地做相同的事情」

So what if you could do the same thing

所以如果你可以對太陽能電池或是電池

with a solar cell or a battery?

做同樣的事情？

I like to say my favorite biomaterial is my four year-old.

我會說我最喜歡的生物材料就是我的四歲小孩。

But anyone who's ever had, or knows, small children

任何一個有過或認識小朋友的人都知道

knows they're incredibly complex organisms.

他們是非常複雜的個體。

And so if you wanted to convince them

所以如果你想要說服他們

to do something they don't want to do, it's very difficult.

去做他們不想要做的事情﹐是非常困難的。

So when we think about future technologies,

所以當我們在思考未來的科技，

we actually think of using bacteria and virus,

我們會想利用細菌和病毒

simple organisms.

那樣簡單的生物體。

Can you convince them to work with a new tool box,

你能不能說服它們用新的方法

so that they can build a structure

讓它們能夠建造出一個

that will be important to me?

對我有用的結構？

Also, we think about future technologies.

而且，我們思考著有關未來的科技。

We start with the beginning of Earth.

我們從地球的開端講起。

Basically, it took a billion years

基本上，地球經過了幾十億年

to have life on Earth.

才有生命。

And very rapidly, they became multi-cellular,

且很快的，它們變成多細胞生物，

they could replicate, they could use photosynthesis

它們會複製﹐它們可以用光合作用

as a way of getting their energy source.

來取得它們能量的來源。

But it wasn't until about 500 million years ago --

但直到五千萬年前--

during the Cambrian geologic time period --

在寒武紀地質時期--

that organisms in the ocean started making hard materials.

生物才從海洋移到陸地。

Before that they were all soft, fluffy structures.

在那之前，生物都是柔軟蓬鬆的結構。

And it was during this time

也是在這個時期

that there was increased calcium and iron

環境中的鈣、鐵和矽

and silicon in the environment.

逐漸增加。

And organisms learned how to make hard materials.

然後生物們學會製造出硬的材料。

And so that's what I would like be able to do --

那就是我想要做的--

convince biology

說服生物學界

to work with the rest of the periodic table.

與週期表上的其他元素合作。

Now if you look at biology,

現在如果你看看生物學中，

there's many structures like DNA and antibodies

有很多像是DNA和抗體

and proteins and ribosomes that you've heard about

還有蛋白質和核糖體這些你有聽過的東西

that are already nano-structured.

都已經是奈米結構的。

So nature already gives us

所以自然界早已經給了我們

really exquisite structures on the nanoscale.

在奈米尺度下如此精巧的結構。

What if we could harness them

如果我們能夠駕馭它們

and convince them to not be an antibody

說服它們不要當抗體

that does something like HIV?

就像HIV那樣﹖

But what if we could convince them

或是如果我們可以說服它們

to build a solar cell for us?

為我們製造太陽能電池﹖

So here are some examples: these are some natural shells.

所以這是一些例子：這些自然的貝殼。

There are natural biological materials.

這是天然的生物材料。

The abalone shell here -- and if you fracture it,

這個鮑魚殼，如果你打裂它，

you can look at the fact that it's nano-structured.

你可以看到它是奈米結構的。

There's diatoms made out of SIO2,

而矽藻是由二氧化矽組成

and they're magnetotactic bacteria

且它們是超磁細菌

that make small, single-domain magnets used for navigation.

製造出微小、單一結構磁鐵來幫助導航。

What all these have in common

共同點是

is these materials are structured at the nanoscale,

這些材料都是在奈米尺度上建造的，

and they have a DNA sequence

且他們都有DNA序列

that codes for a protein sequence,

可以轉譯成蛋白質序列

that gives them the blueprint

給它們製造這些

to be able to build these really wonderful structures.

美好構造的藍圖。

Now, going back to the abalone shell,

現在，回到齙魚殼，

the abalone makes this shell by having these proteins.

鮑魚因為有這些蛋白質才能製造這個殼。

These proteins are very negatively charged.

這些蛋白質帶有大量負電。

And they can pull calcium out of the environment,

且它們可以在環境中吸引鈣，

put down a layer of calcium and then carbonate, calcium and carbonate.

鋪下一層鈣然後碳酸化、加鈣、再碳酸化。

It has the chemical sequences of amino acids

它擁有氨基酸的化學序列，

which says, "This is how to build the structure.

說著：「這是如何建造結構。

Here's the DNA sequence, here's the protein sequence

這是DNA序列、這是蛋白質序列

in order to do it."

才能完成這件事。」 in order to do it."

And so an interesting idea is, what if you could take any material that you wanted,

所以有趣的是，如果你可以選擇任何一種材料

or any element on the periodic table,

或是元素週期表上的任何一個元素，

and find its corresponding DNA sequence,

然後找到它對應的DNA序列，

then code it for a corresponding protein sequence

將它轉譯成相對的蛋白質序列

to build a structure, but not build an abalone shell --

來建造一種結構，但不是建造鮑魚殼--

build something that, through nature,

透過大自然來建造出一個

it has never had the opportunity to work with yet.

大自然還沒有機會建造的東西。

And so here's the periodic table.

還有這是個元素週期表。

And I absolutely love the periodic table.

我超愛元素週期表的。

Every year for the incoming freshman class at MIT,

每年MIT進來的大一新生

I have a periodic table made that says,

我都會給他們一張元素週期表在上面寫著：

"Welcome to MIT. Now you're in your element."

「歡迎來到MIT。現在你在你的元素中了。」

And you flip it over, and it's the amino acids

然後你把它翻過來就是氨基酸

with the PH at which they have different charges.

以及它們在不同酸鹼度時的不同電荷。

And so I give this out to thousands of people.

所以我給了好幾千人這樣的表。

And I know it says MIT, and this is Caltech,

我知道它上面寫著是MIT﹐而這裡是加州理工學院，

but I have a couple extra if people want it.

但我這有多出來的表﹐如果有人想要的話。

And I was really fortunate

且我很幸運的

to have President Obama visit my lab this year

今年歐巴馬總統來MIT參觀的時候

on his visit to MIT,

參觀到我的實驗室，

and I really wanted to give him a periodic table.

而我真的很想要給他一張元素週期表。

So I stayed up at night, and I talked to my husband,

所以我熬夜跟我老公討論：

"How do I give President Obama a periodic table?

「我要如何給歐巴馬總統一張元素週期表呢？」

What if he says, 'Oh, I already have one,'

如果他說：「喔！我已經有一張了。」

or, 'I've already memorized it'?"

或是「我已經背起來了」的話那我該怎麼辦？

And so he came to visit my lab

所以他來到了我的實驗室

and looked around -- it was a great visit.

到處晃晃 -- 那是一個很棒的拜訪。

And then afterward, I said,

而之後我跟他說：

"Sir, I want to give you the periodic table

「總統，我想要給你這張元素週期表，

in case you're ever in a bind and need to calculate molecular weight."

以備你在處於困境時會需要計算分子量。」

And I thought molecular weight sounded much less nerdy

而且我覺得比起分子質量

than molar mass.

分子量聽起來比較不會有那麼書呆子的感覺。

And so he looked at it,

然後他看了一下

and he said,

接著說﹐

"Thank you. I'll look at it periodically."

「謝謝你。我會週期性地去看它。」

(Laughter)

（笑聲）

(Applause)

（掌聲）

And later in a lecture that he gave on clean energy,

而之後他在一個乾淨能源的演講中

he pulled it out and said,

把它拿出來說：

"And people at MIT, they give out periodic tables."

「MIT那邊的人會分發元素週期表。」

So basically what I didn't tell you

所以基本上我沒有跟你們說的是

is that about 500 million years ago, organisms starter making materials,

大約五億年前，生物體開始製造材料，

but it took them about 50 million years to get good at it.

但他們花了大約五千萬年才擅長製造材料。

It took them about 50 million years

他們花了大約五千萬年

to learn how to perfect how to make that abalone shell.

才學會如何完美地製造出鮑魚殼。

And that's a hard sell to a graduate student.

而且那樣是很難推銷給研究生的。

"I have this great project -- 50 million years."

「我有一個很棒的方案 -- 要花五千萬年的。」

And so we had to develop a way

所以我們需要發展出一個

of trying to do this more rapidly.

可以更快做到的方法。

And so we use a virus that's a non-toxic virus

所以我們利用病毒，

called M13 bacteriophage

一個叫做M13的無毒噬菌體，

that's job is to infect bacteria.

它們的工作是感染細菌。

Well it has a simple DNA structure

它有很簡單的DNA結構，

that you can go in and cut and paste

讓你可以在裡面複製和貼上

additional DNA sequences into it.

新加的DNA序列。

And by doing that, it allows the virus

這麼做可以讓病毒

to express random protein sequences.

表現隨機蛋白質序列。

And this is pretty easy biotechnology.

這是非常簡單的生化技術。

And you could basically do this a billion times.

而且基本上可以重複幾億次。

And so you can go in and have a billion different viruses

所以你可以進到幾億種

that are all genetically identical,

基因序列相同的病毒中，

but they differ from each other based on their tips,

它們之間唯一不同的在於它們尖端上的

on one sequence

一個序列

that codes for one protein.

轉譯出一個蛋白質。

Now if you take all billion viruses,

現在如果你拿這幾億種病毒，

and you can put them in one drop of liquid,

把它們放進一滴液體中，

you can force them to interact with anything you want on the periodic table.

你可以迫使他們跟週期表上的任何元素互動。

And through a process of selection evolution,

透過選擇性進化，

you can pull one of a billion that does something that you'd like it to do,

你可以在這幾億種病毒中找到一株能做到你想要它做的事的病毒，

like grow a battery or grow a solar cell.

像是會製造電池或是生產太陽能電池的病毒。

So basically, viruses can't replicate themselves, they need a host.

所以基本上，病毒不能自行複製，他們需要有寄主才行。

Once you find that one out of a billion,

當你找到你要的那株病毒，

you infect it into a bacteria,

你可以感染細菌，

and you make millions and billions of copies

你就可以得到幾千幾萬的

of that particular sequence.

相同序列的複製品。

And so the other thing that's beautiful about biology

還有生物學上另一個有趣的地方

is that biology gives you really exquisite structures

就是生物可以給你非常精巧的結構

with nice link scales.

且帶有好的鏈接效應。

And these viruses are long and skinny,

這些病毒是又長又瘦的，

and we can get them to express the ability

且我們可以讓它們表現出

to grow something like semiconductors

可用來生產電池

or materials for batteries.

像半導體或其他類似材料的能力。

Now this is a high-powered battery that we grew in my lab.

這是一個在我們實驗室長出來的高性能電池。

We engineered a virus to pick up carbon nanotubes.

我們製造出能夠撿起奈米碳管的病毒。

So one part of the virus grabs a carbon nanotube.

就是說病毒的一部份可以抓住奈米碳管，

The other part of the virus has a sequence

另外一部份有一個序列

that can grow an electrode material for a battery.

讓它們能夠長出電池電極材料。

And then it wires itself to the current collector.

然後它會自己跟自己連成一個電流集電極。

And so through a process of selection evolution,

透過選擇性進化，

we went from having a virus that made a crummy battery

我們從一株可以致造不怎麼樣的電池的病毒

to a virus that made a good battery

進步到一個可以製造好電池的病毒

to a virus that made a record-breaking, high-powered battery

再到一個破紀錄、高性能電池的病毒，

that's all made at room temperature, basically at the bench top.

且這都是在室溫下達成的，基本上就是在實驗桌上做出來的。

And that battery went to the White House for a press conference.

這個電池到白宮參加了一個記者招待會。

I brought it here.

我把它帶來這裡。

You can see it in this case -- that's lighting this LED.

你可以在這個盒子裡看到--正在照亮這個LED。

Now if we could scale this,

如果我們可以有規模的做，

you could actually use it

你可以用這電池

to run your Prius,

來驅動你的普銳斯，

which is my dream -- to be able to drive a virus-powered car.

這是我的夢想：可以開一臺病毒驅動的車。

But it's basically --

但基本上，

you can pull one out of a billion.

你可以從幾億種病毒裡面挑出一株。

You can make lots of amplifications to it.

你可以大量放大它。

Basically, you make an amplification in the lab.

基本上，你可以在實驗室裡放大。

And then you get it to self-assemble

然後你讓它自己組裝

into a structure like a battery.

成為一個類似電池的結構。

We're able to do this also with catalysis.

我們可以利用催化劑來做到。

This is the example

就像是利用光能

of photocatalytic splitting of water.

分解水分子。

And what we've been able to do

我們目前正在做的是

is engineer a virus to basically take dye absorbing molecules

製造出一株病毒﹐讓可以吸收染料的分子們在

and line them up on the surface of the virus

它表面上排排站

so it acts as an antenna,

作用像是個接收器，

and you get an energy transfer across the virus.

這樣就能將能量轉移到病毒全身。

And then we give it a second gene

然後我們給它第二段基因，

to grow an inorganic material

讓它能夠長出無機材料，

that can be used to split water

可以用來將水分解成

into oxygen and hydrogen,

氧氣和氫氣，

that can be used for clean fuels.

可以作為乾淨能源。

And I brought an example with me of that today.

我今天帶來了一個樣本。

My students promised me it would work.

我的學生跟我保證這個樣本是能運作的。

These are virus-assembled nanowires.

這些是病毒組裝的奈米電線。

When you shine light on them, you can see them bubbling.

當光照設在上面的時候，你可以看到這些氣泡。

In this case, you're seeing oxygen bubbles come out.

在這個例子中，你看到的是氧氣氣泡。

And basically by controlling the genes,

基本上利用控制基因，

you can control multiple materials to improve your device performance.

你可以控制多種材料來改善你的器具效能。

The last example are solar cells.