for the human brain.

人類長久以來對人腦

We chart it, we've described it,

感到著迷。

we've drawn it,

我們試圖繪製它、解釋它、

we've mapped it.

我們已經將它畫出來、

Now just like the physical maps of our world

已經繪製了它。

that have been highly influenced by technology --

就像是真實事件的地圖一樣，

think Google Maps,

繪製腦袋圖也受科技影響很深--

think GPS --

像是谷哥地圖,

the same thing is happening for brain mapping

像是衛星定位--

through transformation.

同樣的事情在繪製腦袋圖時

So let's take a look at the brain.

也同樣在發生。

Most people, when they first look at a fresh human brain,

所以讓我們來瞭解一下腦袋。

they say, "It doesn't look what you're typically looking at

很多人，當他們第一次看到人腦的時候

when someone shows you a brain."

會說：「這不是一般人家給你看腦的時候

Typically, what you're looking at is a fixed brain. It's gray.

會看到的東西。」

And this outer layer, this is the vasculature,

大部份時候你會看到的是已經固定的腦。是灰色的。

which is incredible, around a human brain.

這外面的這一層，這是微血管，

This is the blood vessels.

圍繞在腦袋邊緣, 非常驚人。

20 percent of the oxygen

這些是血管。

coming from your lungs,

從肺中得到的

20 percent of the blood pumped from your heart,

是百分之二十的氧氣、

is servicing this one organ.

百分之二十從你的心臟中泵出來的血液，

That's basically, if you hold two fists together,

都是供應給這個器官。

it's just slightly larger than the two fists.

簡單的說, 如果你把你的兩個拳頭放在一起，

Scientists, sort of at the end of the 20th century,

它僅僅比這兩個拳頭大一點點而已。

learned that they could track blood flow

科學家在二十世紀末時

to map non-invasively

學到如何利用非侵入性的手法

where activity was going on in the human brain.

追蹤血液流向

So for example, they can see in the back part of the brain,

來瞭解人腦正在工作的區域。

which is just turning around there.

舉例來說，他們可以從腦部背後

There's the cerebellum; that's keeping you upright right now.

這樣追蹤來到這裡。

It's keeping me standing. It's involved in coordinated movement.

這是小腦，就是讓你現在保持著頭上腳下姿勢的東西。

On the side here, this is temporal cortex.

它跟協調性動作有關，讓我現在可以站著。

This is the area where primary auditory processing --

在這裡是顳葉皮層。

so you're hearing my words,

這裡跟聽覺處理有關：

you're sending it up into higher language processing centers.

就是說你現在正在聽我講話，

Towards the front of the brain

你把這個資訊送到語言處理中心。

is the place in which all of the more complex thought, decision making --

在腦的前面

it's the last to mature in late adulthood.

是這個更複雜、跟做決定有關的東西。

This is where all your decision-making processes are going on.

它是最晚成熟的部位，直到成年時期才發育完成。

It's the place where you're deciding right now

這是你腦袋做所有決定的地方。

you probably aren't going to order the steak for dinner.

這是你現在正在決定

So if you take a deeper look at the brain,

你晚上是不是要點牛排當晚餐的地方。

one of the things, if you look at it in cross-section,

所以如果你更進一步地看我們的腦袋，

what you can see

如果你看這個切片圖，

is that you can't really see a whole lot of structure there.

你會看到

But there's actually a lot of structure there.

這邊沒有很多結構。

It's cells and it's wires all wired together.

但事實上這邊是有很多結構的。

So about a hundred years ago,

這些是細胞被串聯在一起。

some scientists invented a stain that would stain cells.

大概在一百年前，

And that's shown here in the the very light blue.

一些科學家發明了一個可以染細胞的染劑。

You can see areas

在這裡可以看到淡淡的藍色。

where neuronal cell bodies are being stained.

你可以看到有些區域

And what you can see is it's very non-uniform. You see a lot more structure there.

有著被染色的細胞。

So the outer part of that brain

但你也可以看到它並不規律。你可以看到更多的結構。

is the neocortex.

在腦袋的外層

It's one continuous processing unit, if you will.

是大腦皮層。

But you can also see things underneath there as well.

你可以說它是一個連續的單位。

And all of these blank areas

但你也可以看到在它下面還有很多其他的結構。

are the areas in which the wires are running through.

而這些空白的區域

They're probably less cell dense.

就是連接網絡經過的地方。

So there's about 86 billion neurons in our brain.

這些區域的細胞密度有可能比較低。

And as you can see, they're very non-uniformly distributed.

所以我們腦袋中有86億個神經元。

And how they're distributed really contributes

而且就像你們看到的，他們沒有非常規律地分佈。

to their underlying function.

而他們如何分佈的

And of course, as I mentioned before,

事實上和他們的功能有關。

since we can now start to map brain function,

而且就像我之前提到的，

we can start to tie these into the individual cells.

因為我們已經開始繪製腦袋功能解析圖了，

So let's take a deeper look.

我們可以試圖將這些細胞連接起來。

Let's look at neurons.

讓我們更進一步地觀察。

So as I mentioned, there are 86 billion neurons.

讓我們看看這些神經元。

There are also these smaller cells as you'll see.

就像我剛剛說的，我們有86億神經元。

These are support cells -- astrocytes glia.

你們還可以看到還有這些更小的細胞。

And the nerves themselves

這些是支持細胞, 叫作星狀膠細胞。

are the ones who are receiving input.

但接收到訊息的

They're storing it, they're processing it.

是神經本身。

Each neuron is connected via synapses

它們將訊息儲存並作處理。

to up to 10,000 other neurons in your brain.

每個神經元可經由突觸

And each neuron itself

連接到最多一萬個其它也在腦部的神經元。

is largely unique.

且每一個神經元

The unique character of both individual neurons

都有它的獨特性。

and neurons within a collection of the brain

單一神經元和

are driven by fundamental properties

某些聚在同一區域的神經元的獨特性

of their underlying biochemistry.

是源於基本的

These are proteins.

生化特性。

They're proteins that are controlling things like ion channel movement.

也就是蛋白質。

They're controlling who nervous system cells partner up with.

蛋白質控制像是離子通道輸送功能這類的事情。

And they're controlling

蛋白質也決定神經系統與什麼東西合作。

basically everything that the nervous system has to do.

基本上蛋白質控制了

So if we zoom in to an even deeper level,

所有與神經系統有關係的東西。

all of those proteins

所以如果我們更深入地看，

are encoded by our genomes.

這些蛋白質

We each have 23 pairs of chromosomes.

是由我們的基因所決定的。

We get one from mom, one from dad.

我們有23對染色體。

And on these chromosomes

其中一條來自於母親，另一條來自父親。

are roughly 25,000 genes.

在這些染色體上，

They're encoded in the DNA.

大約有25,000個基因。

And the nature of a given cell

這些基因被寫在DNA裡面。

driving its underlying biochemistry

而細胞本質

is dictated by which of these 25,000 genes

這些基層的生化組成，

are turned on

就是由這25,000個基因

and at what level they're turned on.

來決定何時被啓動

And so our project

及如何被啓動的。

is seeking to look at this readout,

所以我們的計畫

understanding which of these 25,000 genes is turned on.

就是研究這些結果，

So in order to undertake such a project,

試圖瞭解這25,000個基因中的哪一些是被啓動的。

we obviously need brains.

所以要做這樣的實驗，

So we sent our lab technician out.

我們明顯地需要腦袋。

We were seeking normal human brains.

所以我們派了實驗室技師

What we actually start with

來幫我們搜集正常的人腦。

is a medical examiner's office.

我們從法醫的辦公室

This a place where the dead are brought in.

出發。

We are seeking normal human brains.

這是一個死人會被帶到的地方。

There's a lot of criteria by which we're selecting these brains.

我們想要正常的人腦。

We want to make sure

我們對我們需要的腦袋有很多要求。

that we have normal humans between the ages of 20 to 60,

我們需要確定

they died a somewhat natural death

我們得到的腦袋是在20到60歲之間、

with no injury to the brain,

是自然死的、

no history of psychiatric disease,

沒有任何腦部傷害、

no drugs on board --

沒有任何心裡疾病、

we do a toxicology workup.

沒有長期用藥--

And we're very careful

我們會要做一系列的毒物檢查。

about the brains that we do take.

且我們要非常謹慎地

We're also selecting for brains

對待我們要拿的腦袋。

in which we can get the tissue,

我們選擇

we can get consent to take the tissue

可以從中拿到組織的腦袋，

within 24 hours of time of death.

且我們需要在死亡後24小時內

Because what we're trying to measure, the RNA --

拿到取組織的許可。

which is the readout from our genes --

因為我們想要測量的RNA（核糖核酸）

is very labile,

代表著各個基因的表現量--

and so we have to move very quickly.

這是非常不穩定的，

One side note on the collection of brains:

所以我們需要很快的速度完成實驗。

because of the way that we collect,

另外一個值得一提的是：

and because we require consent,

因為我們這樣的做法，

we actually have a lot more male brains than female brains.

也就是我們需要得到許可，

Males are much more likely to die an accidental death in the prime of their life.

我們得到的男性腦袋遠多於女性腦袋。

And men are much more likely

男性比女性更有可能在壯年時期死於意外事件。

to have their significant other, spouse, give consent

而且男性比女性

than the other way around.

更容易取得他的重要伴侶、另一半的許可

(Laughter)

願意讓我們拿他的腦袋。

So the first thing that we do at the site of collection

（笑聲）

is we collect what's called an MR.

在我們取到樣本後的第一件事情

This is magnetic resonance imaging -- MRI.

就是取得我們叫作MR的東西。

It's a standard template by which we're going to hang the rest of this data.

這是一張MRI也就是核磁共振影像。

So we collect this MR.

這是一張基準圖，我們用它來跟我們取得的影像做比較。

And you can think of this as our satellite view for our map.

我們取得這個叫MR的東西。

The next thing we do

你可以把這個想成是我們想要繪製的地圖的衛星圖。

is we collect what's called a diffusion tensor imaging.

接下來我們要做的是

This maps the large cabling in the brain.

取得一個叫做彌散張量圖的東西。

And again, you can think of this

這可以幫忙繪製腦袋中比較明顯的連結。

as almost mapping our interstate highways, if you will.

你可以把這個想像成

The brain is removed from the skull,

地圖上的高速公路。

and then it's sliced into one-centimeter slices.

從頭骨中取出腦袋後，

And those are frozen solid,

我們將之切成約一公分後的切片。

and they're shipped to Seattle.

這些切片冷凍後

And in Seattle, we take these --

被送到西雅圖。

this is a whole human hemisphere --

在西雅圖，我們會拿到這個，

and we put them into what's basically a glorified meat slicer.

這是整個人腦半球，

There's a blade here that's going to cut across

然後把它放在一個基本上是切肉機的東西。

a section of the tissue

這邊有刀片，可以從組織中

and transfer it to a microscope slide.

切出一部份

We're going to then apply one of those stains to it,

然後將它放到顯微鏡玻片上。

and we scan it.

用染劑將之染色後

And then what we get is our first mapping.

就可以掃描了。

So this is where experts come in

我們就可以得到第一張圖。

and they make basic anatomic assignments.

這裡是專業學者來

You could consider this state boundaries, if you will,

將基本的結構標示出來的時候。

those pretty broad outlines.

你可以把這個想像成各州的界限，

From this, we're able to then fragment that brain into further pieces,

就是那些很容易劃分的界限。

which then we can put on a smaller cryostat.

從這裡，我們可以開始將腦袋進一步分成幾個小部份，

And this is just showing this here --

然後我們可以把這些部份分開存放於低溫存放器中。

this frozen tissue, and it's being cut.

這就是在做這件事情：

This is 20 microns thin, so this is about a baby hair's width.

這是冷凍組織切片的過程。

And remember, it's frozen.

這是20微米厚的切片，大約跟嬰兒頭髮一樣厚。

And so you can see here,

而且別忘了，這是冷凍的。

old-fashioned technology of the paintbrush being applied.

所以在這裡你可以看到，

We take a microscope slide.

古早的水彩筆方法被運用在這上面。

Then we very carefully melt onto the slide.

我們拿一片玻片，

This will then go onto a robot

很小心地將它熔在另一片玻片上。

that's going to apply one of those stains to it.

然後讓機器人

And our anatomists are going to go in and take a deeper look at this.

加入染劑。

So again this is what they can see under the microscope.

然後我們的解剖學家要更進一步的解析這個樣本。

You can see collections and configurations

這是我們在顯微鏡下看到的東西。

of large and small cells

你可以看到一些

in clusters and various places.

大大小小的細胞

And from there it's routine. They understand where to make these assignments.

聚集在各處的一些構造。

And they can make basically what's a reference atlas.

從這裡開始就是例行事務。這些學者知道各個結構應該在哪裡。

This is a more detailed map.

他們可以建立一個像是圖鑒的東西。

Our scientists then use this

就是一個更精準的地圖。

to go back to another piece of that tissue

我們的科學家利用這個資訊

and do what's called laser scanning microdissection.

再回到原本的樣本

So the technician takes the instructions.

並做雷射切割。

They scribe along a place there.

技師得到這個指令，

And then the laser actually cuts.

他們在這裡劃線，

You can see that blue dot there cutting. And that tissue falls off.

也就是雷射切割的地方。

You can see on the microscope slide here,

你可以看到這些雷射切割的藍點，然後整個組織會被切下。

that's what's happening in real time.

你可以從這個影片看到

There's a container underneath that's collecting that tissue.

顯微玻片上發生的事情。

We take that tissue,

在這個下面有個桶子會接住所有切下的組織。

we purify the RNA out of it

我們利用一些簡單的技術

using some basic technology,

將這個組織中的

and then we put a florescent tag on it.

RNA純化，

We take that tagged material

然後加上螢光顯色。

and we put it on to something called a microarray.

我們將顯色的東西

Now this may look like a bunch of dots to you,

放到一個叫做芯片的東西上。

but each one of these individual dots

你們可能會覺得這看起來像是一堆點點,

is actually a unique piece of the human genome

但這上面每一個點

that we spotted down on glass.

都代表著人類基因的一個片段。

This has roughly 60,000 elements on it,

每個片段都被我們點在玻片上。

so we repeatedly measure various genes

這上面大約有60,000個元素，

of the 25,000 genes in the genome.

所以我們一直重複著測量

And when we take a sample and we hybridize it to it,

基因組中25,000個基因的表現量。

we get a unique fingerprint, if you will,

當我們拿一個樣本並將它跟芯片中的片段配對，

quantitatively of what genes are turned on in that sample.

我們可以得到一個像是指紋般特殊的組合，

Now we do this over and over again,

可以告訴我們樣本中哪些基因是被啓動的。

this process for any given brain.

我們對每一個我們拿到的腦袋

We're taking over a thousand samples for each brain.

重複這件事情。

This area shown here is an area called the hippocampus.

我們可以從一個腦袋中取得超過一千個樣本。

It's involved in learning and memory.

這個部位叫作海馬迴。

And it contributes to about 70 samples

它跟學習和記憶有關。

of those thousand samples.

在我們的一千個樣本中，

So each sample gets us about 50,000 data points

它大概佔了七十個。

with repeat measurements, a thousand samples.

所以我們大約有一千個樣本，

So roughly, we have 50 million data points

每個樣本可以給我們大約50,000個點。

for a given human brain.

所以每一個腦袋

We've done right now

我們大約有五千萬個點。

two human brains-worth of data.

目前我們大概做了

We've put all of that together

兩個人腦多的數據。

into one thing,

我們把這些數據

and I'll show you what that synthesis looks like.

合成一體，

It's basically a large data set of information

且我會給你們看我們怎麼做的。

that's all freely available to any scientist around the world.

基本上就是一個很大的數據組，

They don't even have to log in to come use this tool,

讓世界上所有科學家都可以用的數據。

mine this data, find interesting things out with this.

他們不需要登入就可以使用、

So here's the modalities that we put together.

挖掘、尋找他們想要的東西。

You'll start to recognize these things from what we've collected before.

這是我們目前建構出來的模型。

Here's the MR. It provides the framework.

你們會開始認識這些我們蒐集來的東西。

There's an operator side on the right that allows you to turn,

這是MR，它給我們一個骨架。

it allows you to zoom in,

在右邊這裡可以控制讓圖轉動，

it allows you to highlight individual structures.