Cities, past and future.

看不見的事物的本質。

In Oxford, perhaps we can use Lewis Carroll

城市的過去和未來。

and look in the looking glass that is New York City

在牛津，我們或許可以將路易斯．卡洛爾

to try and see our true selves,

做為借鏡，藉由紐約市反映出的現況，

or perhaps pass through to another world.

並試著看清我們真實的自我，

Or, in the words of F. Scott Fitzgerald,

或許還能穿越到另一個世界。

"As the moon rose higher,

或者，就像史考特‧費茲傑羅所說的，

the inessential houses began to melt away

“當明月冉冉升起時，

until gradually I became aware of the old island

那些微不足道的房屋慢慢消逝，

here that once flowered for Dutch sailors' eyes,

直到我逐漸意識到這座古老島嶼

a fresh green breast of the new world."

當年曾讓荷蘭水手驚艷，

My colleagues and I have been working for 10 years

是新世界中的一塊翠綠寶石。"

to rediscover this lost world

我和我的同事花了10年功夫

in a project we call The Mannahatta Project.

去重現這個消失的世界，

We're trying to discover what Henry Hudson would have seen

這則是“Mannahatta計畫”的主要任務。

on the afternoon of September 12th, 1609,

我們試圖再現Henry Hudson

when he sailed into New York harbor.

在1609年9月12日下午，

And I'd like to tell you the story in three acts,

駕船駛入紐約港時看到的景象。

and if I have time still, an epilogue.

我把故事分成三個部分，

So, Act I: A Map Found.

如果講完還有時間，就再做個總結。

So, I didn't grow up in New York.

第一部分：發現地圖。

I grew up out west in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, like you see here,

我不是在紐約長大的。

in the Red Rock Canyon.

我的家鄉在内華達州山區西部，大家可以看到，

And from these early experiences as a child

就在紅岩峽谷。

I learned to love landscapes.

由於小時候的成長經歷

And so when it became time for me to do my graduate studies,

讓我愛上了自然景觀。

I studied this emerging field of landscape ecology.

因此，當我在念研究所時，

Landscape ecology concerns itself

我選擇了當時新興的景觀生態學作為我的研究方向。

with how the stream and the meadow and the forest and the cliffs

景觀生態學主要是在研究

make habitats for plants and animals.

溪流、草地、森林和懸崖

This experience and this training

如何構成適合動植物生存的環境。

lead me to get a wonderful job with the Wildlife Conservation Society,

這段研究過程

which works to save wildlife and wild places all over the world.

讓我在國際野生生物保護協會找到了一份很棒的工作，

And over the last decade,

主要致力於保護世界各地的野生生物和自然環境。

I traveled to over 40 countries

在過去的十年内，

to see jaguars and bears and elephants

我到過40多個國家，

and tigers and rhinos.

去觀察美洲豹、熊、大象、

But every time I would return from my trips I'd return back to New York City.

老虎和犀牛。

And on my weekends I would go up, just like all the other tourists,

每次旅行結束後，我就會回到紐約，

to the top of the Empire State Building,

在周末時，我就會跟大多數的遊客一樣，

and I'd look down on this landscape, on these ecosystems,

登上帝國大廈頂樓，

and I'd wonder, "How does this landscape

俯看這片土地，和其生態系統，

work to make habitat for plants and animals?

然後我就會想：“這片土地

How does it work to make habitat for animals like me?"

是如何為動植物提供合適的居住地？

I'd go to Times Square and I'd look at the amazing ladies on the wall,

如何為人們提供合適的居住地？”

and wonder why nobody is looking at the historical figures just behind them.

我也會去時代廣場，而當我看着廣告牆上的美女時，

I'd go to Central Park and see the rolling topography of Central Park

我會想，為何没有人看看她們身後的歷史人物呢。

come up against the abrupt and sheer

我還會去中央公園，

topography of midtown Manhattan.

看著那裡起伏的地形

I started reading about the history and the geography in New York City.

和曼哈頓中城高聳的地形形成了鮮明對比。

I read that New York City was the first mega-city,

於是我開始研讀紐約市的歷史和地理。

a city of 10 million people or more, in 1950.

我發現紐約市是世界上第一座超级大城，

I started seeing paintings like this.

在1950年居住人口就破千萬。

For those of you who are from New York,

我開始研究這樣的畫作。

this is 125th street under the West Side Highway.

在坐來自紐約的聽眾，我要告訴你們，

(Laughter)

這裡是西城高速公路下的125街。

It was once a beach. And this painting

(笑聲)

has John James Audubon, the painter, sitting on the rock.

這裡曾是一片海灘。

And it's looking up on the wooded heights of Washington Heights

而圖中有一位名叫John James Audubon的畫家，坐在礁石上。

to Jeffrey's Hook, where the George Washington Bridge goes across today.

圖中上方長滿樹木的高地是華盛頓高地。

Or this painting, from the 1740s, from Greenwich Village.

Jeffrey’s Hook燈塔的方向，即是今天喬治華盛頓大橋横跨之處。

Those are two students at King's College -- later Columbia University --

或是這幅1740年描繪格林威治村的畫作。

sitting on a hill, overlooking a valley.

圖中有兩位國王學院（即現今的哥倫比亞大學）的學生

And so I'd go down to Greenwich Village and I'd look for this hill,

坐在山丘上俯瞰山谷。

and I couldn't find it. And I couldn't find that palm tree.

但是當我到格林威治村去找這座山丘時。

What's that palm tree doing there?

卻早就找不到了。就連那棵棕櫚樹也找不到。

(Laughter)

不過那裡怎麼會有一棵棕櫚樹？

So, it was in the course of these investigations that I ran into a map.

(笑聲)

And it's this map you see here.

但就在尋訪過程中，我發現到一張地圖，

It's held in a geographic information system

就是螢幕上大家看到的這張圖。

which allows me to zoom in.

它存在於地理資訊系统中，

This map isn't from Hudson's time, but from the American Revolution,

因此我就可以進行缩放。

170 years later, made by British military cartographers

這張地圖並非繪製於哈德遜時期，而是在170年後美國獨立革命時，

during the occupation of New York City.

由英國軍事製圖師所繪製，

And it's a remarkable map. It's in the National Archives here in Kew.

當時英軍占領了紐約市。

And it's 10 feet long and three and a half feet wide.

這是一張令人讚嘆的地圖，現存於英國Kew的國家檔案館中。

And if I zoom in to lower Manhattan

整張地圖長10英尺，寬3.5英尺。

you can see the extent of New York City as it was,

如果我把曼哈頓下城放大，

right at the end of the American Revolution.

大家就可以看到美國獨立革命末期

Here's Bowling Green. And here's Broadway.

紐約市的範圍。

And this is City Hall Park.

這裡是Bowling Green，而這裡是百老匯。

So the city basically extended to City Hall Park.

這邊則是市府公園。

And just beyond it you can see features

所以，當時的城市就只有到市府公園。

that have vanished, things that have disappeared.

再往上看，

This is the Collect Pond, which was the fresh water source for New York City

景觀就消失了。

for its first 200 years,

這裡是Collect 水塘，它是紐約市

and for the Native Americans for thousands of years before that.

最初200年的飲用水源，

You can see the Lispenard Meadows

在此之前它滋養了美國原住民數千年。

draining down through here, through what is TriBeCa now,

你們可以看到Lispenard草地，

and the beaches that come up from the Battery,

它流過此處，即Tribeca的現址，

all the way to 42nd St.

而當時的海灘則從Battery

This map was made for military reasons.

一路延伸到42街。

They're mapping the roads, the buildings, these fortifications

這張地圖是為了軍事用途而繪製的。

that they built.

所以他們繪製了道路、建築物以及

But they're also mapping things of ecological interest,

他們建造的防禦工事。

also military interest: the hills,

除此之外，他們還繪製了具有生態價值的事物，

the marshes, the streams.

當然也具有軍事價值，像是山丘、

This is Richmond Hill, and Minetta Water,

沼澤和溪流。

which used to run its way through Greenwich Village.

這裡則是Richmond山丘和Minetta Water

Or the swamp at Gramercy Park, right here.

它曾經穿過格林威治村。

Or Murray Hill. And this is the Murrays' house

Gramercy公園的沼澤在這。

on Murray Hill, 200 years ago.

這是Murray高地。這則是200年前位於Murray高地上的

Here is Times Square,

Murray’s House。

the two streams that came together to make a wetland

這邊是時代廣場，

in Times Square, as it was at the end of the American Revolution.

兩條河川交會在此形成一片濕地

So I saw this remarkable map in a book.

也就是在時代廣場的位置，當時是美國獨立戰爭末期。

And I thought to myself, "You know, if I could georeference this map,

我是在一本書上看到這張了不起的地圖。

if I could place this map in the grid of the city today,

當時我想：“如果我可以對這張地圖作地理坐標參照，

I could find these lost features

如果我可以把這張地圖放在今日紐約市地圖的格線上，

of the city,

那我就能找到

in the block-by-block geography that people know,

這座城市曾有的景觀，

the geography of where people go to work, and where they go to live,

一塊塊拼湊出大家熟悉的地貌，

and where they like to eat."

像是我們上班的地點、居住的地方，

So, after some work we were able to georeference it,

以及常去的餐廳。”

which allows us to put the modern streets on the city,

在經過一番努力之後，我們完成了地理座標參照，

and the buildings, and the open spaces,

我們就可以把現今城市的街道、

so that we can zoom in to where the Collect Pond is.

建築物和開放空間放上去，

We can digitize the Collect Pond and the streams,

然後我們就能放大Collect 池塘的所在地，

and see where they actually are in the geography of the city today.

我們可以將Collect 池塘和溪流數位化，

So this is fun for finding where things are

以看出這些地點在現今城市中的實際位置。

relative to the old topography.

有趣的地方在於

But I had another idea about this map.

找出和原先地形相對應的位置。

If we take away the streets, and if we take away the buildings,

關於這張地圖我有另一個想法。

and if we take away the open spaces,

假如我們移除街道、建築，

then we could take this map.

和開放空間，

If we pull off the 18th century features

我們就可以重複使用這張地圖。

we could drive it back in time.

如果我們移除18世紀的景觀，

We could drive it back to its ecological fundamentals:

我們便能穿越時空，

to the hills, to the streams,

讓它回到最初的基本生態，

to the basic hydrology and shoreline, to the beaches,

例如山丘、溪流、

the basic aspects that make the ecological landscape.

基礎水文、海岸線、海灘等，

Then, if we added maps like the geology, the bedrock geology,

也就是構成生態地景的基本要素。

and the surface geology, what the glaciers leave,

然後，假若我們再加上像地質地圖、床岩地質地圖、

if we make the soil map,

地表地質、冰川遺跡，

with the 17 soil classes,

或是土壤地圖，

that are defined by the National Conservation Service,

含有17種

if we make a digital elevation model

經由國家土壤保育署所界定的土壤類型，

of the topography that tells us how high the hills were,

如果我們用數值高程模型，

then we can calculate the slopes.

描繪出代表山丘高度的地形，

We can calculate the aspect.

我們便能計算出坡度，

We can calculate the winter wind exposure --

並算出方位，

so, which way the winter winds blow across the landscape.

還能算出冬季風向，

The white areas on this map are the places protected from the winter winds.

算出吹過地景的冬季季風走向。

We compiled all the information about where the Native Americans were, the Lenape.

地圖上白色的部份是冬季季風吹不到的地方。

And we built a probability map of where they might have been.

我們編輯所有關於當時美國原住民，Lenape部落居住地的資訊

So, the red areas on this map indicate the places

並且繪製他們可能駐足處的機率地圖

that are best for human sustainability on Manhattan,

紅色區塊是全曼哈頓裡

places that are close to water,

最適合人類居住的地區，

places that are near the harbor to fish,

因為最靠近河流，

places protected from the winter winds.

和可捕魚的港口，

We know that there was a Lenape settlement

也可抵擋冬季刺骨寒風的侵襲。

down here by the Collect Pond.

我們都知道Lenape聚落曾居住之處，

And we knew that they planted a kind of horticulture,

就在Collect 池塘旁。

that they grew these beautiful gardens of corn, beans, and squash,

我們也得知他們在那種植花草樹木，

the "Three Sisters" garden.

他們一手打造了美麗且生氣蓬勃的穀物、豆類、及南瓜花園，

So, we built a model that explains where those fields might have been.

也就是“三姐妹”花園。

And the old fields, the successional fields that go.

所以，我們製作了這個模型，來解釋這些花園的可能位置。

And we might think of these as abandoned.

以及舊時園地，和後來新園地的位置

But, in fact, they're grassland habitats

我們也許會以為它們早已荒蕪

for grassland birds and plants.

但事實上，

And they have become successional shrub lands,

它們已變成草原鳥類和植物的棲息地。

and these then mix in to a map of all the ecological communities.

並進而演變為灌木林地，

And it turns out that Manhattan had 55 different ecosystem types.

所有的一切都集合於生態社區地圖中。

You can think of these as neighborhoods,

所以有55種不同生態系統共同存在於曼哈頓。

as distinctive as TriBeCa and the Upper East Side and Inwood --

你可以把他們看成是各有特色的鄰近社區，

that these are the forest and the wetlands

就像是Tribeca, Upper East Side和Inwood一樣 --

and the marine communities, the beaches.

只是它們是森林、溼地、

And 55 is a lot. On a per-area basis,

海洋生態社區，以及沙灘。

Manhattan had more ecological communities

55種生態系統算是非常的多。以單位面積來看，

per acre than Yosemite does,

曼哈頓每英畝擁有比

than Yellowstone, than Amboseli.

優勝美地國家公園、

It was really an extraordinary landscape

黃石國家公園，安波沙里國家公園更多的生態社區。

that was capable of supporting an extraordinary biodiversity.

這真的是非常不可思議的環境

So, Act II: A Home Reconstructed.

可以讓如此多種的生態社區同時共存。

So, we studied the fish and the frogs and the birds and the bees,

第二部份：重現家園。

the 85 different kinds of fish that were on Manhattan,

所以我們開始研究所有曾出現在曼哈頓的生物，像是魚、蛙、鳥、蜜蜂

the Heath hens, the species that aren't there anymore,

光是在曼哈頓就曾有85種不同種類的魚，

the beavers on all the streams, the black bears,

新英格蘭黑琴雞(the Heath hens), 現在早已絕種，

and the Native Americans, to study how they used

還有曾經在溪流四處可見的河狸和黑熊，

and thought about their landscape.

和美國原住民，

We wanted to try and map these. And to do that what we did

要研究他們如何善用和看待這片土地。

was we mapped their habitat needs.

我們所需作的就是

Where do they get their food?

繪製他們的棲息地點分布圖。

Where do they get their water? Where do they get their shelter?

例如，他們去哪覓食?

Where do they get their reproductive resources?

他們去哪擷取水源? 他們都居住在哪?

To an ecologist, the intersection of these is habitat,

以及他們去哪取得繁殖資源?

but to most people, the intersection of these is their home.

對生態學家來說，這一切的交集就是所謂的棲息處。

So, we would read in field guides, the standard field guides

但對大多數人來說，這則是他們稱為家的地方。

that maybe you have on your shelves,

所以我們閱讀田野指南，

you know, what beavers need is, "A slowly meandering stream

我想你們書架上應該都會有這一類的書，

with aspen trees and alders and willows,

例如河狸的棲息處是"蜿蜒而平靜的小溪，

near the water." That's the best thing for a beaver.

兩側有白楊木，赤楊和柳樹，

So we just started making a list.

靠近水源處。"這就是海狸的理想家園。

Here is the beaver. And here is the stream,

所以我們製作了一張對照表

and the aspen and the alder and the willow.

左邊是海狸，上面則是牠們的棲息地點：溪流，

As if these were the maps that we would need

白楊木，赤楊和柳樹。

to predict where you would find the beaver.

彷彿這些是可以用來預測

Or the bog turtle, needing wet meadows and insects and sunny places.

能在哪遇見海狸的地圖。

Or the bobcat, needing rabbits and beavers and den sites.

同理，牟式龜需要的是潮濕的草地，昆蟲和陽光充足的地方。

And rapidly we started to realize that beavers can be

山貓需要兔子，海狸還有洞穴。

something that a bobcat needs.

由此可知，海狸是

But a beaver also needs things. And that having it

山貓的獵物。

on either side means that we can link it together,

但海狸也有所需的食物。

that we can create the network

把兩邊連結起來之後，

of the habitat relationships for these species.

我們就可以創造出一個

Moreover, we realized that you can start out

這些物種的棲息地關係網。

as being a beaver specialist,

再來，我們了解你可以成為

but you can look up what an aspen needs.

一名海狸專家，

An aspen needs fire and dry soils.

不過你還可以研究白楊需要什麼。

And you can look at what a wet meadow needs.

白楊需要火和乾燥土壤。

And it need beavers to create the wetlands,

同樣的，你也可以查查潮濕草地需要些什麼。

and maybe some other things.

它需要海狸來製造溼地，

But you can also talk about sunny places.

也許你還能探討其他東西。

So, what does a sunny place need? Not habitat per se.

但當提到陽光充足的地點時，

But what are the conditions that make it possible?

你會問說，"那它需要什麼呢?" 不是棲息地本身。

Or fire. Or dry soils.

而是什麼樣的條件讓它充滿陽光

And that you can put these on a grid that's 1,000 columns long

是火嗎? 還是乾燥土壤?

across the top and 1,000 rows down the other way.

然後你將所有的資料逐一放在

And then we can visualize this data like a network,

欄列各1000行的表格上後。

like a social network.

我們就能把這個生態網路具體化，

And this is the network of all the habitat relationships

就像社群網路一樣。

of all the plants and animals on Manhattan,

而這就是所有在曼哈頓的動植物

and everything they needed,

及其所需一切的

going back to the geology,

棲地網路圖，

going back to time and space at the very core of the web.

我們就能回溯到當時地質的情況，

We call this the Muir Web. And if you zoom in on it it looks like this.