when you happen to walk by a particular room in a particular lab, and see something a little

當你碰巧由一個特定的房間走 在一個特定的實驗室，看東西有點

unnerving. Namely, you find a woman punching an inflatable clown named Bobo in the neck.

令人不安。也就是說，你會發現一個女人衝 在頸部名為波波充氣小丑。

Over and over in its neck. This was the lab of legendary psychologist Albert Bandura,

一遍又一遍在其脖子上。這是在實驗室 傳說中的心理學家班杜拉的，

and in 1961 he was studying one of the most important phenomena in psychology.

並於1961年他正在研究一個最 心理學中的重要現象。

See, while the woman was throttling that big inflatable clown, there was a child watching

見，而女人是節流那麼大 充氣小丑，有個孩子看

her. And after about ten minutes of observing this clown-beating display, the kid was taken

她。和約十分鐘觀察的後 這個小丑跳動顯示，孩子被送往

to a room full of fun toys, which were soon taken away, and then the frustrated kid was

一個房間充滿了樂趣的玩具，這是很快 拿走了，然後沮喪小子

left alone with Bobo, and Bandura watched what happened. And yeah, what happened was

與波波呆著，和班杜拉觀看 發生了什麼。 ，是的，發生了什麼事

kind of scary. Kids who watched the woman beating the clown were much more likely to

一種可怕的。孩子們誰看了女人 跳動的小丑更可能以

mimic her aggression -- kicking, punching, throwing, even attempting to maul Bobo with

模仿她的侵略 - 踢，打， 投擲，甚至企圖打傷波波與

a hammer. But other children who saw an adult playing nicely with the doll, or just ignoring

一個錘子。但是，其他的孩子誰看到一個大人 的娃娃玩很好，或者只是忽略

it, didn’t respond the same way in their frustration.

它，沒反應的相同方法其 挫折。

Bandura’s results may seem predictable now, but in those days, they challenged the dominant

班杜拉的結果現在似乎可以預測， 但在那些日子裡，他們挑戰的主導

behaviorist views that we talked about last week -- the views that learning is solely

我們談到了過去的行為主義者的看法 週 - 的意見，學習完全是

about conditioning and association, rewards and punishments. Bandura’s research focused

關於空調和協會，獎勵 和懲罰。班杜拉的研究重點

on how learning can occur through observing and imitating someone else’s behavior. And

通過觀察如何發生的學習 和模仿別人的行為。和

if that seems obvious to you, you have Bandura to thank for that. His research hastened the

如果這似乎是顯而易見的給你，你有班杜拉 感謝了點。他的研究催生了

evolution of 20th century experimental psychology from pure behaviorism into what we now know

20世紀實驗心理學的演變 從單純的行為主義到我們現在知道

as social-cognitive learning. While it was closely related to behaviorism, the social-cognitive

作為社會認知學習。雖然這是 密切相關的行為主義，社會認知

models added profoundly new dimensions to what Skinner and Watson and Pavlov had observed

車型增加新的深刻尺寸 斯金納和沃森和巴甫洛夫看到了什麼

in our feathered and furry friends. In other words, it showed us that -- just as there’s

在我們的羽毛和毛茸茸的朋友。其他 也就是說，它向我們表明 - 就像有

more than one way to beat up a clown -- there’s way more than one way to learn.

以上的方式打了一個小丑 - 有 方法不止一種方式來學習。

[INTRO]

[簡介]

Last week we talked about the differences between classical and operant conditioning

上週我們談到的區別 古典和操作條件之間

in associative learning -- the kind of learning that comes from connecting different events

在聯想學習的 - 種學習 來自連接不同的事件

and stimuli. In classical conditioning, this means associating a stimulus with some kind

和刺激。在傳統的空調，這 指的是刺激了某種關聯

of involuntary response -- the whole dog slobbering at the sound of a bell phenomenon -- whereas

非自願的反應 - 全狗流口水 在鐘現象聲音 - 而

operant conditioning makes associations between stimulus and a voluntary behavior -- like

操作條件使得之間的關聯 激勵和自願的行為 - 就像

the rat pressing a lever to get delicious snacks, or jumping out of a cage to escape

老鼠按下槓桿來獲得美味 零食，或跳出籠子逃脫

an electrical shock.

電擊。

And that’s all well and good, but if learning is the process of acquiring and retaining

而這一切都很好，但如果學習 是獲取和保留過程

new behavior and information, then Bandura’s experiments showed us that conditioning with

新的行為和信息，然後班杜拉 實驗表明我們與調理

external rewards, punishments, or other stimuli isn’t the only way to do it. It’s hard

外部獎勵，懲罰，或其他刺激 是不是這樣做的唯一途徑。這個很難（硬

to deny that pretty much all animals are capable of learning certain things by association,

否認，幾乎所有的動物都能夠 學習由協會某些事情，

but critics of behaviorists like Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner had a problem with their assertions

但像巴甫洛夫，華生行為主義者的批評， 斯金納曾與他們的主張有問題

that, when it came to learning, it didn’t matter much whether you’re training rats,

即，當它來學習的，它沒有 多大關係無論你是訓練大鼠，

pigeons, or people--it’s all the same. Because, lots of research has demonstrated that an

鴿子，還是人 - 這是完全一樣的。因為， 大量的研究已經證明，一個

animal’s capacity for conditioning is actually limited by its biology.

動物的能力調理實際上是 其生物學限制。

Consider this scenario: Say I get a raging case of food poisoning after eating my head-weight

考慮這種情況：說我得到了洶湧 食物中毒的情況下，吃了我的頭，後重

in raw oysters with my friend Bernice. I’m probably not going to want to touch oysters

在我的朋友伯尼斯生蠔。我 可能不會想摸摸牡蠣

again for a long, long time, because I associate their smell and taste with the smell and taste

再一個很長一段時間，因為我聯想 他們的嗅覺和味覺與嗅覺和味覺

they made when I was — when they were coming back out, is what I’m trying to say. But,

他們提出時，我是 - 當他們要來 退了出去，就是我想說的。但，

that doesn’t mean that the sight of Bernice, or the sound of the sea shanties they were

這並不意味著視線伯尼斯這一點， 或海窩棚的聲音，他們

playing at the restaurant would make me barf, because humans are, by our very nature, more

在餐廳玩會讓我BARF， 因為人類，我們的本性，更

taste averse than we are sight or sound averse. On the other hand, sight-oriented animals,

厭惡的味道比我們的視線或聲音反對。 另一方面，面向視力動物

like birds, may be biologically predisposed to avoid tainted food by sight, since that’s

像鳥兒一樣，可能會傾向於生物 為了避免食品污染的視線，因為這是

how they hunt and forage. And presumably they go to restaurants that play better music.

他們是如何尋找和草料。想必他們 去那玩更好的音樂餐廳。

Anyway, all of this tells us that species can more easily learn associations that help

無論如何，這一切告訴我們，物種 可以更輕鬆地學習協會，幫助

them thrive or survive, and that not all associations are learned equally. It’s a lot easier to

他們茁壯成長還是挺過來了，而且並非所有的關聯 也同樣的教訓。它更容易了很多

teach a pigeon to peck an X on the ground to obtain a food reward than it is get it

教鴿子啄地上一個X 獲得食物獎勵比它得到它

to flap its wings to get that same reward, because pecking is a natural foraging behavior

扇動它的翅膀來獲得同樣的獎勵， 因為啄是一個自然的覓食行為

for a pigeon. In the same way, it would be much harder for the bird to learn to peck

對於一隻鴿子。以同樣的方式，這將是 更難的鳥學會啄

that X to avoid a shock, rather than to flap its wings to avoid the shock, because flying

是X，以避免震動，而不是扇動 它的翅膀，以避免震動，因為飛

away from danger is what pigeons naturally do.

遠離危險是自然的鴿子 做。

Learned associations are even more complicated in humans of course, because what we learn

據悉協會是更加複雜 當然，在人類，因為我們學習

doesn’t only influence our behavior, it also shapes our attitudes. Our cognition -- that

不僅影響我們的行為， 也塑造了我們的態度。我們的認知 - 即

is, our thoughts, perspectives, and expectations -- is important for learning, as is our social

是，我們的思想，觀點和期望 - 是學習的重要，因為我們的社會

context, as Bandura figured out. So, Pavlov-style conditioning experiments that ignore those

背景下，作為班杜拉想通了。因此，巴甫洛夫式 空調實驗證明忽略這些

social-cognitive elements can really run into trouble. For example, someone under treatment

社會認知元素能真正碰上 麻煩。例如，有人正在接受治療

for an alcohol addiction may be given booze laced with a nauseating drug. According to

對於酒精成癮可給予豪飲 股價與肉麻的藥物。根據

the pure classical conditioning model, that person would then equate booze with feeling

純粹的經典性條件反射模式，即 那麼人會等同於酒的感覺

nasty.

討厭。

But the brain can override this association if it’s aware that it’s the added drug,

但大腦可以覆蓋此關聯 如果它知道它的加入藥物，

and not the alcohol, is the thing that’s causing the illness. Sometimes we can think

而不是醇，是那是事 導致疾病。有時候，我們能想到的

our way out of intended associations. And by the same token, a person’s social context

我們的出路打算協會。和 同樣的道理，一個人的社會背景

- like, their friends, family traditions, or life stressors - can reinforce something

- 樣，他們的朋友，家人的傳統， 或生活壓力 - 可以強化的東西

like alcohol consumption more than the nauseating pill could ever punish it.

如酒精消費比更肉麻 丸所能予以處罰。

Plus, we also do a lot of latent learning, like without even knowing it. Have you ever

另外，我們也做了很多潛在的學習， 喜歡甚至不知道它。你有沒有

been walking around a new city, someone stops you to ask directions, and you surprise yourself

一直走在新城市，有人站 你問路，你自己驚喜

by actually being able to tell that tourist how to get to the park? That’s because we’re

通過實際能夠告訴遊客 怎麼去公園嗎？這是因為我們

constantly developing cognitive maps, or mental representations of our surroundings, without

不斷發展的認知地圖，或精神 我們周圍的表示，不

explicitly telling ourselves to do it. We’ve all seen the experiments with in mazes: Well,

明確地告訴自己做到這一點。我們已經 都看到了實驗，在迷宮：嗯，

those show us that even rats develop these cognitive maps, figuring out how to get around,

這些告訴我們，即使是老鼠患這些 認知地圖，找出如何解決，

even if there’s no reward at the end. And days later, when they finally do get food

即使是在最後沒有獎勵。和 幾天後，當他們終於做獲得食物

at the end of the maze, they quickly demonstrate all that earlier latent learning by scuttling

在迷宮的結束，他們很快證明 所有早期潛伏學習通過鑿開

through the maze as fast, or faster, than rats that had been rewarded all along.

穿過迷宮一樣快，或者更快，比 已被一向獎勵只。

So, learning isn’t just about associating a response with a consequence. There’s thinking

所以，學習不只是關聯 用的結果的響應。還有的思考

happening, too. And this kind of thinking is also a big part of observational learning,

發生了。而這種思維 也觀察學習的重要組成部分，

which is basically learning by watching other people, or being influenced by them in other

這基本上是通過看其他學習 人，還是被他們在其他影響

ways. Because, you don’t need direct experience to learn. You can just pick up stuff up through

方式。因為，你不需要直接經驗 學習。您只需拿起東西了通過

modeling -- not like modeling on the catwalk, I just mean observing and imitating specific

造型 - 不喜歡在走秀造型， 我僅僅意味著觀察和模仿特定

behaviors.

的行為。

Rats, crows, pigeons, primates, and other animals learn through imitation. Chimps learn

老鼠，烏鴉，鴿子，靈長類動物和其他 動物學會通過模仿。黑猩猩學習

how to use sticks to fish ants out of a nest this way. One study found rhesus macaques

如何用棍子魚螞蟻出巢 這條路。一項研究發現，恒河猴

were usually slow to make up after a fight unless they grew up watching more forgiving

為彌補吵架後通常是緩慢的 除非他們從小看著更寬容

older macaques, in which case they tended to make up more quickly. Of course we humans

舊的獼猴，在這種情況下，它們往往 彌補更快。當然，我們人類

learn A LOT from modeling -- I mean, most of our popular culture is based on it: new

學到很多東西從造型 - 我的意思是，最 我們的流行文化是基於它新

slang, skinny jeans, foodie trends, pixie cuts -- they’re all racing around the globe

俚語，緊身牛仔褲，美食家的趨勢，小精靈 切 - 他們都在全球各地的賽車

through observation and imitation. So it makes a lot of sense that social observation shapes

通過觀察和模仿。因此，它使 很多的感覺，對社會的觀察形狀

behavior, especially in children.

的行為，尤其是兒童。

Which brings us back to Bobo. Again, the fact that we learn by imitating, even when we don’t

這把我們帶回了波波。再次，事實 我們學習模仿，即使我們不

mean to, seems pretty intuitive, but until Bandura’s famous experiment, it hadn’t

的意思，似乎很直觀，但直到 班杜拉的著名實驗，它沒有

been studied in a scientific way. I mean, these kids started abusing Bobo not just with

被研究的科學方法。我是說， 這些孩子們開始濫用波波不僅與

little toddler punches, but with hostile language and even using things, like toy guns, that

蹣跚學步的小拳，但與敵對語言 甚至使用的東西，比如玩具槍，即

they previously had no interest in -- and all because they saw aggressive modeling in

他們以前有沒有興趣 - 和 一切都是因為他們看到積極的建模

action. And since Bandura’s time, technology has allowed us to peer even deeper into this

行動。而且，由於班杜拉的時間，技術 讓我們同行更深入到這個

dynamic.

動態。

Neuroimaging in humans, for instance, has shown that when an individual watches someone

在人類神經影像學，例如，具有 表明，當一個單獨的手錶有人

else, especially someone whom they relate to, receive an award or score a goal or something,

別的，尤其是誰的人，他們涉及 於領獎或進球或什麼的，

their own brain’s reward systems light up vicariously. Italian researchers found this

自己大腦的獎賞系統亮起 共鳴。意大利研究人員發現了這個

out pretty much by accident in the early 1990s: They were studying signals from key regions

出幾乎由90年代初的事故： 他們正在研究從重點區域的信號

in a lab monkey’s brain that were associated with planning and doing. Their brain-monitoring

在實驗室的猴子的大腦中有關聯 規劃和行動。他們的大腦監控

device buzzed softly when the monkey did something like pick up a piece of fruit and eat it.

設備輕聲發出嗡嗡聲時，猴子做了一件 就像拿起一塊水果吃。

But one hot day, a researcher came back from lunch licking an ice cream cone, and suddenly

但有熱的天，研究人員從回來 午餐舔了一支冰淇淋，突然

heard the animal’s brain monitor buzz -- the monkey was watching him, and his brain worked

聽到動物的大腦嗡嗡聲監聽 - 的 猴子看著他，他的大腦工作

as if it was actually doing the licking.

彷彿它實際上做舔。

Many scientists suspect that this is the work of a previously unknown type of brain cell

許多科學家懷疑這是工作 一個以前未知類型的腦細胞的

called mirror neurons, which fire when a subject both performs an action, and when they observe

所謂的鏡像神經元，其中火當對象 無論執行一個動作，而當他們觀察

someone else doing it. Mirror neuron research is still relatively new, and we’re still

別人這樣做。鏡像神經元的研究 還是比較新的，而且我們還在

figuring them out, but combined with Bandura’s earlier work, it’s revealing a strong connection

盤算出來，但與班杜拉的結合 早期的工作，它展現出強大的連接

between observation, imitation, and learning. So the takeaway here is: Models are important!

觀察，模仿和學習之間。 因此，這裡的外賣是：模型是很重要的！

And not just Gisele and Antonio Sabato Junior. You can, if you want, observe and imitate

而且不只是吉賽爾和安東尼奧·薩巴托少年。 你可以，如果你願意，觀察和模仿

them; I’m just saying that observational, social learning starts really early, and parental

他們;我只是說，觀察， 社會學習開始很早，和父母

figures are powerful role models.

數字是有力的榜樣。

Positive, supportive, and loving models usually prompt similar behavior in others, just as

積極的，支持，熱愛模型通常 提示類似的行為在其他國家，就像

negative, aggressive modeling can spark antisocial effects. And, as we’ll talk about later,

消極的，侵略性的造型可以激發反社會 影響。而且，正如我們將在以後討論，

what we see and feel and learn as children is not easily displaced when we’re adults.

我們所看到和感覺，了解兒童 當我們成人不容易移位。

Literary giant George Bernard Shaw wrote, “Imitation is not just the sincerest form

文豪蕭伯納寫道： “模仿是不只是真誠的

of flattery - it's the sincerest form of learning.” And British statesman Lord Chesterfield once

奉承 - 這是學習的真誠的。“ 而英國政治家切斯特菲爾德勳爵曾經

said, “We are, in truth, more than half what we are by imitation.” Even if these

說，“我們，說實話，有一半以上 我們是通過模仿。“即使這些

ideas were only half-true, they’d still be a powerful lesson on who you choose to

想法只是半真實的，他們還是會 是你選擇誰在強大的教訓

spend your time with, and how you choose to act.

花你的時間，你如何選擇 法案。

If you learned anything by watching me today, hopefully it involved the limitations of classical

如果你今天看我學到了什麼， 希望它涉及古典的局限性

and operant conditioning, the basics of cognitive, observational, and social learning, a look

和操作條件，認知的基礎， 觀察，學習和社會學習，一看

at mirror neurons, and how to beat up a Bobo doll.

在鏡像神經元，以及如何打了一撥撥 娃娃。

Thanks for watching, especially to all of our Subbable subscribers, who make this whole

感謝收看，特別是所有的 我們Subbable用戶，誰使這整個

channel possible. If you’d like to sponsor an episode of Crash Course, get a special

通道可能。如果您想贊助 速成班的一個小插曲，得到一個特殊的

decal, or even be animated into an upcoming episode, just go to subbable.com. This episode

貼花，甚至是動畫為即將到來 插曲，只是去subbable.com。這個情節

was written by Kathleen Yale, edited by Blake de Pastino, and our consultant is Dr. Ranjit

作者是耶魯大學的凱瑟琳，布雷克編輯 德Pastino，我們的顧問是蘭吉特博士

Bhagwat. Our director and editor is Nicholas Jenkins, and the script supervisor is Michael

巴格瓦特。我們的導演和編輯是尼古拉斯 詹金斯，而劇本指導是邁克爾

Aranda, who is also our sound designer, and the graphics team is Thought Café.

阿蘭達，誰也是我們的音響設計師， 圖形團隊思想的咖啡廳。