Name: 語言學習和通用文法 (Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar)
Uploaded: 2021-01-14T05:56:04.000Z
Duration: 9 min 17 s

程度副詞

So let’s talk about babies. Very cute, right? It’s hard to look at a baby smiling at you

我們來談談嬰兒，很可愛，對吧？看到嬰兒微笑時

情態副詞

and not feel good. But even the most devoted parents don’t generally think of their baby

總是不自覺地嘴角上揚。但是甚至是最摯愛的父母基本上都不會認為他們的嬰兒

as a cognitive powerhouse. But babies figure out how language works like little

是具有認知能力的載體。但是嬰兒就像小神童一樣地了解語言是如何運作的

geniuses. They’re just born that way. I’m Moti Lieberman, and this is the Ling Space.

他們就是天生如此。　我是Moti Lieberman，歡迎來到林式空間（語言學空間）

Language is special. People can do a lot of amazing things - ride a unicycle, learn long

語言是很特別的。人們可以做很多驚人的事情，像是騎單輪腳踏車，學習長除法

division, walk on the moon. But maybe the most

amazing thing that human beings do is language. Don’t believe me? Just wait.

驚人的事就是語言。你不相信？等著瞧

So the most important idea for today’s episode is the theory that the ability to learn and

今天這一集中最重要的概念就是一個理論是說我們能夠學習

use language is biologically hardwired into the human brain.

使用語言是與生俱來在我們腦中的能力

Babies are made to pick up the language that they hear around them, just sponging up those glorious sounds and structures

嬰兒是生出來就可以習得在他們周遭所聽到的語言，就是能夠吸收那些困難的聲音和句子

and turning them into their mother tongues. The theory that language is something innate,

然後把它們轉化成他們的母語。這理論就是說語言是天生的

something you’re born with, is known in linguistics as nativism or generativism,

是與生俱來的，在語言學中就是所知的先天論或是生成論

and it’s got a lot of really good evidence behind it.

而且已經在許多證據下被證明了

Before we start getting into what this means, though, let’s be perfectly clear about what

在我們探討它的意思之前，我們得先定義這範疇的界線

it doesn’t. It doesn’t mean that we’re born with any particular language – no baby springs

它不是指我們出生就有特定的語言能力－沒有嬰兒一蹦出來

into the world with the ability to speak perfect English or German or Japanese. We don’t

就會說英文、德文或日語的。我們不

come equipped with the rules or sounds or vocabulary of any language - that’s all stuff we have to learn.

是與生俱來知道那些語言的規則、聲音或是單字－那些都是需要學習的

What babies don’t need to figure out is how language can work – what kinds of words

嬰兒不用學習就可以知道語言是如何運作的－什麼字

we can build, what types of sentences we can make, what sorts of interpretations we’re

我們可以造、什麼句子我們可以說或是我們語言允許的意義

allowed. These fundamental principles of language define what’s possible and what’s not,

這些語言根本的原則定義了可行性及不可行性

and they’re the same for everybody. Anything that doesn’t stick to the rules will never

對每個人來說都一樣。任何不遵守規則的東西從不會

come up in any human language, ever.  Given how many

different languages there are, it might seem unlikely that there's one set of principles that can rule

要適用所有在所有不同的語言，看似好像沒有一套的原則可以管理

them all. But the idea comes to us from none less than the father of modern linguistics,

它們全部。但是這樣的想法來自了重要的當代語言學之父

Noam Chomsky. He called it: Universal Grammar, or UG.

諾姆喬姆斯基。 他把它稱為「普遍語法」或是UG

There are a lot of arguments to back up the nativist position, but for today, we’re just

有許多的討論可以來支持先天論，但是今天，我們只會

going to focus on two of them. So the first is that babies go through the same stages in

針對其中的兩種。 所以，第一個是嬰兒在成長中經歷了一樣的階段

development no matter what language they’re learning. The second is that infants master

不論他們是學習什麼語言。 第二個是嬰兒為什麼可以精通

language way faster than they should if they’re just little blank slate know-nothing babies.

語言比他們應該得快很多，如果他們只是一張白紙、什麼都不知道的小孩。

To be that fast, there’s got to be something there to help them along.

要這麼快，一定要有一些東西來幫助他們。

Let’s start off with babbling, those adorable random syllables that little babies make. Except

我們從一些胡言亂語開始，那些小小孩所造出來的可愛的、隨機組合的音節。 除了

they’re not really random. No matter what language they’re learning, this early babbling

它們其實不是真的任意的。 不論他們在學什麼語言，這些的嬰兒的牙牙學語

uses the same set of sounds. One study examined the early babbling of babies from 15 different

使用了同一套聲音。 一個研究檢驗了來自15種語言的嬰兒的牙牙學語

languages, including English, Thai, Japanese, Arabic, Hindi, and Mayan – languages where

包含英文、泰文、日文、阿拉伯文、北印度話和馬雅話－這些語言的

all they have in common is that they’re spoken by people. The study found that these

共同之處就是都是人類的語言。 這個研究發現

babies all prefer labial consonants, or sounds made with the lips, more than other consonants;

嬰兒都偏好唇音，或是用嘴唇發出的聲音，都比其他子音還要多

stop consonants like [p] and [b], where the air flow through the mouth is totally blocked,

像是[p]和[b]的塞音，也就是氣流在行經口腔的時候是完全被阻塞的

over others; and vowels made low in the mouth like [æ] and [ɑ] over those that are made

勝過其他的；在口腔中較低部位發出的母音像是[æ]和[ɑ]也比其他

And all of that is independent of how often - or even whether

而且這些都是和頻率獨立出來的，或是甚至

at all - these languages make use of these sounds! Babbling Hindi-learning babies make

完全不相關。 這些語言運用著這些聲音! 學北印度語的嬰兒和

the same amounts of the same sounds that Arabic-learning babies do.

學阿拉伯文的嬰兒發出了一樣數量的一樣聲音。

In fact, your average 8-month-old baby can differentiate between any pair of sounds used

事實上，平均8個月的嬰兒可以分辨世界上任何語言中的任何一對聲音

in any language in the world. Depending on your language, you might not be able to tell

取決於你的語言，你或許無法說出

the difference between [t̪ɑk] and [ʈɑk], or between [lɑk] and [ɹɑk],

[t̪ɑk]和[ʈɑk]或是[lɑk]和[ɹɑk]的差異

but your baby can. It makes sense: a baby needs to be prepared

但是嬰兒可以。 這很合理，一個嬰兒需要準備好

to pick up any language, so they better come equipped to hear anything that could be relevant.

來學起任何語言，所以他們有更好的配備能用聽辨可能相關的聲音

It’s not just the way they deal with sounds that’s the same for all infants. They all

這不只是他們處理聲音的方式，是所有嬰兒都是的。 他們全部

pick up words at the same approximate rate and stages, too, and that's regardless of how the language

也都在差不多的階段以差不多的程度來學起生字，而且這也是和他們學什麼語言

they’re learning works. It doesn’t matter whether or not the babies hear motherese, that

是毫無關係的。 嬰兒有沒有聽到媽媽式說話不重要，也就是

way of speaking slow and using easy words and intonation, like “What a cute baby!

慢慢說、用簡單的字和語調來說話，像是「多麼可愛的小孩呀！

It doesn’t matter if the language has tone, like Mandarin, or doesn’t, like English,

語言如果有音調並不重要，像是中文，或是沒有，像是英文

or whether the verb comes at the beginning or end of the sentence.

或是動詞是在句子的開頭或結尾

In fact, all babies, in whatever language, will start getting their first words around

事實上，所有的嬰兒，在不管什麼語言中，都會開始學到第一個字

10-12 months old. By 18 months, they’ve got about 50 words. And then they undergo

在10到12個月的時候。 18個月前，他們就學會了約50個字。 然後他們就歷經了

a crazy vocabulary spurt, picking up hundreds of words over the next few months, so that

一個瘋狂的單字暴衝，在未來的幾個月內就學起數百個字，一直這樣到

by around 2, they’ll have about 500. And then they start going even faster! Your average

大約兩歲的時候，他們就有了500個單字了。 然後接下來甚至是進行得更快！平均

2 and a half year old is glomming up new words at the rate of about 10 a day. That’s faster than

兩歲半的時候就以一天10個字的速率來快速學起新單字。

your average 3-credit undergraduate language course.

比一般大學生3學分的語言課程還要快

So the ways that kids make sounds, the way they pick up words, it’s all the same worldwide,

所以小孩發出聲音的方式，他們學字的方式，是全世界都一樣的

in Chicago or Tokyo or Cairo or Bangkok. And since the languages they’re learning are

在芝加哥、東京、開羅或是曼谷都一樣。 而且因為他們所學的語言是

all so different, this tells us something fundamental about the human brain. How babies

都截然不同的，這告訴我們人腦的根本概念。嬰兒如何

learn language is biological – our brains are configured for language.

學習語言是天生的－我們的大腦是為了語言而備的

If you’re still not convinced, how about this: there’s been a lot of research done

如果你還不相信，那看看這個：已經有許多研究

on other language acquisition theories, and the results there are just as clear.

其他語言習得理論的研究，而且結果是很清楚的

Maybe you think that we can pick up language quicker than other behavioral skills, that

或許你認為我們可以習得語言比其他行為技能還要快

there’s nothing special about it except how fast we do it. Okay. First, of course

這完全沒有任何特別的，除了我們的速度。 首先

kids make mistakes - calling a deer “horsie” the first time they see one, saying “I eated”

孩子當然會犯錯－在第一次看到鹿的時候，叫成馬，就是說I eated

instead of “I ate” - but there’s all sorts of mistakes that kids don’t make that it

而非I ate－但是所有孩童不會犯的錯誤的種類

seems like they should. For example, when asking a question, “Teddy is happy” can

就似乎他們會。 例如，當問一個問題，「泰迪熊很開心」可以

turn into “Is Teddy happy?”, but “Teddy dressed up as Alice” can never turn into “Dressed

變成「泰迪熊開心嗎？」，但是「泰迪熊裝扮得跟艾莉絲一樣」就無法變成「

Teddy up as Alice?”. Kids never make mistakes like that.

裝扮泰迪熊像愛麗絲嗎？」孩童永遠不會犯這樣的錯誤

Second, if language was just something you picked up without having a blueprint in your

第二，如果語言是能夠在腦中不用計畫就能夠學起的

brain, it should be possible to approximate some part of it with computer modeling. That’s

它就應該可以是大腦一部分會近似於電腦模擬

exactly what one linguist tried to do in 2011. She designed twenty different computer models

那就是一個語言學家在2011年試著做的。她設計了20種不同電腦模擬狀況

of how the English stress system could be acquired – so what syllables should be pronounced

是關於英文重音系統是如何被習得的－所以音節應該要發出什麼音

more strongly than others, and what factors matter for deciding that. And the researcher

比其他音節還要強，什麼因素造成的。 而且那研究者

didn’t only run the experiment only once – she did it a thousand times for each model, with

不只運行那個實驗一次－她一個模型做了一千次

different versions paying attention to different factors. So how many of these models nailed

有針對不同因素的不同版本。　所以有多少模型是關於英文的發現呢？

English? Three. Three out of twenty thousand total trials.

三個。　兩萬個試驗中只有三個

And yet, basically every English speaking child gets this right. That strongly

而且截至今日，基本上每一個說英文的小孩就可以搞清楚這個。

suggests there’s something very special going on with language.

這強烈暗示了語言有很特別的東西

But it’s not just that all babies do the same things that makes us think that language

但是不只是因為嬰兒都這樣所以使我們這樣認為語言是

is innate, that it’s something we’re born with. It’s that kids get so good at language

天生的，是我們與生俱來的。這也是為什麼孩童可以迅速精通語言

so quickly. Let’s consider what your average 2 and a half year old knows about language.

讓我們回想一下兩歲半時對語言的認知

They know what sound combinations are possible for their language, so they know what a possible

他們知道他們語言中的聲音的可能組合，所以他們知道字聽起來可能是怎樣

word sounds like. They know the word order for their language, so a Turkish kid will

他們知道他們語言中的字序，所以一個土耳其小孩會

know that the verb comes after the object, but a French kid will know it’s the other

知道動詞是跟在受詞的後面，但是一個法國小孩會知道則知道在法文中是相反的

way around. They know how to make questions, and what sorts of questions it's grammatically

他們知道如何造出句子，而且什麼樣的問句是合乎文法

okay to ask. They know how to use modifiers like adjectives or adverbs. Now, think about

來提問的。他們知道如何使用修飾語像是形容詞和副詞。　現在，想想

what your average toddler knows about, like, everything else. They know a whole lot about how language

一般小孩都知道什麼，就是其他任何事情。　他們知道全部語言如何

works, at an age where they can’t add 2 + 2. Or tie their shoes. Or reliably use a bathroom.

運作，在他們還無法2加2的時候就知道了。　或是繫鞋子。　或是可靠地自己使用廁所

So why are kids so good? Why can they learn so fast, make so few mistakes, and succeed

所以為什麼孩子們這樣厲害？　為什麼他們可以學得這麼快？犯這麼少錯？而且成功

where sophisticated computer models fail? How do they know all of this despite not having

當精密電腦模型都失敗了？　他們怎麼知道所有的事情的，儘管沒有

it explicitly taught to them? It’s because they already know how language can work. Deep

經過特意的教學？　那是因為他們已經知道語言如何運作。

in their brains, in their genes, they have the abstract rule sets that tell them what’s possible

深至他們腦中、基因中，他們有抽象的一套規則來告訴他們什麼是可能的

and what’s not. All babies start the same way, with the same linguistic abilities. Then,

和什麼是不可能的。　所有的嬰兒都是這樣開始的，具有一樣的語言能力。　然後，

they apply the data they hear to the Universal Grammar in their heads, and they make little

他們應用他們腦中聽到的普遍語法的數據，然後他們

linguistic miracles happen. Every single day.

使語言奇蹟發生了。　每一天都是如此。