The most important thing to know about prehistoric humans

當你想到原人時，最重要的是

is that they were unimportant.

他們一點也不重要。

Their impact on the world was not much greater than that of jellyfish

他們對世界的影響力

or fireflies or woodpeckers.

和水母、螢火蟲、啄木鳥差別不大。

Today, in contrast, we control this planet.

今天，我們卻變成地球的霸主。

And the question is:

所以問題是：

How did we come from there to here?

我們是怎麼走到這一步的？

How did we turn ourselves from insignificant apes,

我們是如何從毫不起眼的人猿，

minding their own business in a corner of Africa,

在非洲的角落自生自滅，

into the rulers of planet Earth?

搖身一變成為地球霸主的？

Usually, we look for the difference between us and all the other animals

通常我們會在個體差異上

on the individual level.

檢視我們與其它動物的分別，

We want to believe -- I want to believe --

我們想信 － 我想要相信

that there is something special about me,

我們與眾不同，

about my body, about my brain,

我的身體，我的大腦，

that makes me so superior to a dog or a pig, or a chimpanzee.

讓我遠比狗、豬，或是黒猩猩優越。

But the truth is that, on the individual level,

但事實是，就個體差異來說

I'm embarrassingly similar to a chimpanzee.

我和黑猩猩驚人的相似。

And if you take me and a chimpanzee and put us together on some lonely island,

如果你把我和一頭黒猩猩置於同一孤島

and we had to struggle for survival to see who survives better,

看我們之中誰能存活的更好，

I would definitely place my bet on the chimpanzee, not on myself.

我會把籌碼放在黒猩猩身上， 而不是我自己。

And this is not something wrong with me personally.

這不是因為我個人的缺陷，

I guess if they took almost any one of you, and placed you alone

我想如果有人把你們其中任何人

with a chimpanzee on some island,

與一頭黒猩猩一起放在孤島上，

the chimpanzee would do much better.

黑猩猩絕對會生存的更好。

The real difference between humans and all other animals

真正讓人類與其它動物分別開來的特質

is not on the individual level;

不是個體的，

it's on the collective level.

而是群體的。

Humans control the planet because they are the only animals

人類控制地球， 是因為我們是唯一

that can cooperate both flexibly and in very large numbers.

可以大規模靈活合作的動物。

Now, there are other animals --

其它動物，

like the social insects, the bees, the ants --

那些昆蟲，蜜蜂、螞蟻，

that can cooperate in large numbers, but they don't do so flexibly.

牠們也可以大規模地合作， 但沒有像我們這樣靈活。

Their cooperation is very rigid.

牠們的合作方式是固定的。

There is basically just one way in which a beehive can function.

蜂窩總是用同一種方式運作。

And if there's a new opportunity or a new danger,

就算遇上新的機會、新的威脅，

the bees cannot reinvent the social system overnight.

蜜蜂無法在一夜之間改變分工方式

They cannot, for example, execute the queen

譬如說，牠們無法處死蜂后，

and establish a republic of bees,

建立蜜蜂共和國，

or a communist dictatorship of worker bees.

工蜂也不能組成共產獨裁政權。

Other animals, like the social mammals --

其它動物，那些群居的哺乳類動物

the wolves, the elephants, the dolphins, the chimpanzees --

狼、大象、海豚、黒猩猩 －

they can cooperate much more flexibly,

牠們的合作性更靈活，

but they do so only in small numbers,

但規模有限，

because cooperation among chimpanzees

因為黑猩猩合作的基礎是

is based on intimate knowledge, one of the other.

對於彼此的瞭解與認知。

I'm a chimpanzee and you're a chimpanzee,

假設你我都是黒猩猩，

and I want to cooperate with you.

我想和你合作，

I need to know you personally.

我需要先認識你。

What kind of chimpanzee are you?

你是哪種黒猩猩？

Are you a nice chimpanzee?

你是頭善良的黒猩猩？

Are you an evil chimpanzee?

還是邪惡的黒猩猩？

Are you trustworthy?

你可靠嗎？

If I don't know you, how can I cooperate with you?

如果我不認識你， 我怎麼和你合作呢？

The only animal that can combine the two abilities together

唯一擁有這兩種特質

and cooperate both flexibly and still do so in very large numbers

既能大規模合作，又能保持靈活的，

is us, Homo sapiens.

只有我們，智人。

One versus one, or even 10 versus 10,

一比一，甚至十比十，

chimpanzees might be better than us.

黒猩猩可能都比我們優秀。

But, if you pit 1,000 humans against 1,000 chimpanzees,

但，如果數目提高到 一千個人和一千頭黒猩猩

the humans will win easily, for the simple reason

人類就能輕易獲勝，

that a thousand chimpanzees cannot cooperate at all.

因為上千頭黒猩猩無法共同合作。

And if you now try to cram 100,000 chimpanzees

如果你嘗試把十萬頭黒猩猩，

into Oxford Street, or into Wembley Stadium,

塞進牛津街、溫布萊體育館

or Tienanmen Square or the Vatican,

天安門廣場或梵諦岡，

you will get chaos, complete chaos.

絕對會陷入一片混亂。

Just imagine Wembley Stadium with 100,000 chimpanzees.

想像塞滿十萬頭黒猩猩的溫布萊體育館，

Complete madness.

那個景象將有多瘋狂。

In contrast, humans normally gather there in tens of thousands,

相對的，成千上萬的人時常一同在那，

and what we get is not chaos, usually.

也通常不會陷入混亂。

What we get is extremely sophisticated and effective networks of cooperation.

我們有效率、有制度地合作。

All the huge achievements of humankind throughout history,

人類在歷史上達成的巨大成就，

whether it's building the pyramids or flying to the moon,

無論是金字塔還是上月球，

have been based not on individual abilities,

都不是建立在個體的能力，

but on this ability to cooperate flexibly in large numbers.

而是群體的靈活合作。

Think even about this very talk that I'm giving now:

就像現在，我在這裡演講，

I'm standing here in front of an audience of about 300 or 400 people,

面對三、四百個觀眾，

most of you are complete strangers to me.

絕大多數我都不認識。

Similarly, I don't really know all the people who have organized

同樣的，我不認識所有策劃

and worked on this event.

或參與這個活動的人員。

I don't know the pilot and the crew members of the plane

我不認識昨日帶我飛抵倫敦的

that brought me over here, yesterday, to London.

駕駛員和機組人員。

I don't know the people who invented and manufactured

我不認識這些設備的發明和製造者，

this microphone and these cameras, which are recording what I'm saying.

但錄影機和麥克風正在拍攝這段演講。

I don't know the people who wrote all the books and articles

為了準備這段演講， 我讀了不少書和文章，

that I read in preparation for this talk.

卻不認識這些作者。

And I certainly don't know all the people

我當然更不認識這場演講的 網路觀眾，

who might be watching this talk over the Internet,

此刻可能正在布宜諾斯艾利斯、 或新德里。

somewhere in Buenos Aires or in New Delhi.

然而，我們雖不認識彼此，

Nevertheless, even though we don't know each other,

卻能合作創造這個世界平台， 互相交流。

we can work together to create this global exchange of ideas.

這是黑猩猩所做不到的。

This is something chimpanzees cannot do.

當然，牠們也能溝通，

They communicate, of course,

但你絕不會看到一隻黑猩猩 遠渡重洋

but you will never catch a chimpanzee traveling to some distant chimpanzee band

對另一群黑猩猩講解香蕉或大象，

to give them a talk about bananas or about elephants,

或任何黑猩猩有興趣的事。

or anything else that might interest chimpanzees.

合作自然不是只有好事，

Now cooperation is, of course, not always nice;

人類歷史上所有恐怖的事件 －

all the horrible things humans have been doing throughout history --

我們的確做過一些非常恐怖的事 －

and we have been doing some very horrible things --

同樣也是用大規模合作達成的。

all those things are also based on large-scale cooperation.

監獄是一種合作系統，

Prisons are a system of cooperation;

屠宰場是一種合作系統，

slaughterhouses are a system of cooperation;

集中營是一種合作系統，

concentration camps are a system of cooperation.

黒猩猩沒有屠宰場、監獄、或集中營。

Chimpanzees don't have slaughterhouses and prisons and concentration camps.

現在或許我已經說服你

Now suppose I've managed to convince you perhaps that yes,

我們的確掌控了世界， 因為我們能大規模靈活合作。

we control the world because we can cooperate flexibly in large numbers.

下一個問題隨之而來，

The next question that immediately arises

好奇的聽眾心裡想：

in the mind of an inquisitive listener is:

我們是怎麼做到的？

How, exactly, do we do it?

在所有動物中， 為什麼只有我們這樣合作？

What enables us alone, of all the animals, to cooperate in such a way?

答案是我們的想像力。

The answer is our imagination.

我們之所以能和無數陌生人 靈活的合作，

We can cooperate flexibly with countless numbers of strangers,

因為在這星球上的所有動物中，

because we alone, of all the animals on the planet,

只有我們能創造和相信虛構的故事。

can create and believe fictions, fictional stories.

只要大家相信同一個故事，

And as long as everybody believes in the same fiction,

每個人服從並執行一樣的規則，

everybody obeys and follows the same rules,

一樣的基準，一樣的價值觀。

the same norms, the same values.

其它動物的溝通，

All other animals use their communication system

只限於描述真實的物事。

only to describe reality.

黒猩猩說：「看啊！有獅子！快跑！」

A chimpanzee may say, "Look! There's a lion, let's run away!"

或是：「看啊！有棵香蕉樹！ 去摘香蕉吧！」

Or, "Look! There's a banana tree over there! Let's go and get bananas!"

而人類呢，我們的語言 不只是用來描述現實，

Humans, in contrast, use their language not merely to describe reality,

更能用來創造新的現實， 想像的現實。

but also to create new realities, fictional realities.

人可以說：「看啊！雲上有神！

A human can say, "Look, there is a god above the clouds!

如果你不聽從命令，

And if you don't do what I tell you to do,

你死後，神會懲罰你下地獄。」

when you die, God will punish you and send you to hell."

如果你們都相信我發明的故事，

And if you all believe this story that I've invented,

就會依循一樣的基準、法則、價值觀，

then you will follow the same norms and laws and values,

你們就會合作。

and you can cooperate.

這件事只有人類做得到。

This is something only humans can do.

你永遠無法說服一隻黑猩猩交出香蕉，

You can never convince a chimpanzee to give you a banana

就算你承諾牠：「死後， 你會上黑猩猩天堂..... 」

by promising him, "... after you die, you'll go to chimpanzee heaven ..."

（笑聲）

(Laughter)

「... 到時候你的善行 會為你贏得無數的香蕉。

"... and you'll receive lots and lots of bananas for your good deeds.

現在，快把香蕉給我。」

So now give me this banana."

沒有任何黑猩猩會相信這種故事，

No chimpanzee will ever believe such a story.

只有人類會相信這種故事。

Only humans believe such stories,

這就是我們稱霸世界，

which is why we control the world,

而黑猩猩卻淪落到 動物園和實驗室的原因。

whereas the chimpanzees are locked up in zoos and research laboratories.

或許你同意，

Now you may find it acceptable that yes,

的確，在宗教領域，

in the religious field, humans cooperate by believing in the same fictions.

人們因為信仰相同而彼此合作，

Millions of people come together to build a cathedral or a mosque

百萬人同心合力建造教堂、清真寺，

or fight in a crusade or a jihad, because they all believe in the same stories

奮身投入各種聖戰，

about God and heaven and hell.

全都是因為對於 神、天堂與地獄有著相同的信仰。

But what I want to emphasize is that exactly the same mechanism

但我想說的是同樣的運作機制，

underlies all other forms of mass-scale human cooperation,

存在於所有人類的大規模合作，

not only in the religious field.

不限於宗教領域。

Take, for example, the legal field.

譬如，法治概念。

Most legal systems today in the world are based on a belief in human rights.

現在世界上大部分的法律， 都以人權為基礎。

But what are human rights?

但人權是什麼？

Human rights, just like God and heaven, are just a story that we've invented.

人權，就像神和天堂， 都是我們發明的故事。

They are not an objective reality;

不是客觀的事實；

they are not some biological effect about homo sapiens.

也不是智人的某種生理反應。

Take a human being, cut him open, look inside,

解剖人體，往裡探看，

you will find the heart, the kidneys, neurons, hormones, DNA,

裡面有心臟、腎臟、神經元、 荷爾蒙、基因，

but you won't find any rights.

但找不到什麼權利。

The only place you find rights are in the stories

權利只存在於故事裡，

that we have invented and spread around over the last few centuries.

我們在近代世紀裡創造、散播的故事。

They may be very positive stories, very good stories,

這些故事可能很正面、很好，

but they're still just fictional stories that we've invented.

但仍然是我們虛構的。

The same is true of the political field.

政治領域也一樣。

The most important factors in modern politics are states and nations.

國族是今日政治裡最重要的元素。

But what are states and nations?

但國族是什麼？