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  • Prof: Good morning everybody.

  • In the one hundred years between A.D.

  • 98 and A.D.

  • 192, Rome had five emperors: Trajan,

  • Hadrian, Antonius Pius, Marcus Aurelius and Commodus --

  • six if we count Lucius Verus, who was co-emperor with Marcus

  • Aurelius for several years.

  • In the fifty years following the death of the last of the

  • Severan emperors, a young man by the name of

  • Alexander Severus, who died in 235 A.D.,

  • Rome had twenty acknowledged emperors,

  • and many more pretenders to imperial power.

  • Rarely did anyone hold onto power for more than a few years,

  • and some of them lasted only a matter of months.

  • I like to think of the emperors as changing as quickly as the

  • seasons, in the third century A.D.

  • Any wrong move led to assassination and replacement,

  • not by the Senate, but by the provincial armies,

  • by the provincial armies.

  • Civil wars were extremely commonplace in the third century

  • A.D., and it was a very bad time for

  • the Roman emperors, who could literally be stabbed

  • in the back at any moment; and many of them were.

  • The Roman frontiers were in danger,

  • the economy was in shambles, and the vast bureaucracy was

  • also suffering significantly in the third century A.D.,

  • largely because of a lack of central control.

  • In view of this chaotic situation, there was very little

  • time to build buildings, which is obviously what's

  • significant to us, in the context of this course.

  • In many ways I think one can describe, vis-à-vis

  • architecture, the third century A.D.

  • as essentially a wasteland, an architectural wasteland.

  • There were no forums in the third century A.D.

  • There were no basilicas and there were no baths.

  • We will see that the major project in the third century

  • A.D.

  • was not unexpectedly, given this situation,

  • a major defensive wall.

  • That was the main architectural commission in the third century

  • A.D., and it's with that wall that I

  • want to begin today, the so-called Aurelian Walls.

  • Before I do, I just want to give you a

  • glimpse of two of those twenty acknowledged emperors who made

  • their way through the third century A.D.:

  • the boy emperor, Gordian III,

  • on the left-hand side of the screen,

  • and the more mature emperor, Pupienus,

  • who was co-emperor with a man by the name of Balbinus,

  • for a very short time.

  • And, in fact, just to give you a sense of the

  • flavor of the third century, both of them were dragged from

  • the palace, not too long after they had

  • ascended to imperial power, murdered and their bodies

  • tossed in the Tiber River.

  • If you look at these two portraits,

  • one of the boy emperor and one of the more mature emperor,

  • even though many, many years separate them in

  • chronological age, I think you will see,

  • if you look at the way in which these portraitists represented

  • their eyes, in the likenesses of these two

  • individuals, in these official portraits of

  • Gordion and of Pupienus, I think you'll see,

  • if you look at those eyes, that those eyes reveal the

  • concern that these emperors had for the state of the Empire

  • during the third century A.D.: a concern that was extremely

  • warranted, obviously.

  • So again I want to begin with the only significant

  • architectural project in the third century A.D.

  • in Rome, and that is this great defensive wall system called the

  • Aurelian Walls.

  • The Aurelian Walls were built for two main reasons:

  • one, because the earlier walls,

  • the so-called Servian Walls, which we studied at the very

  • beginning of the semester, which date to the Republic--378

  • B.C.

  • is when they were dedicated; so way, way back in the

  • beginning of our discussion of Roman architecture--

  • you'll remember that those Servian Walls--

  • and I can show it to you with this plan here of the walls

  • during ancient Roman times-- the Servian Walls encircled

  • just the Seven Hills of Rome.

  • So this central area here, where we see the Palatine,

  • the Capitoline, the Caelian,

  • the Quirinal Hill, that was the location of that

  • original Servian Wall.

  • As the city grew, as the population grew,

  • as more people were brought back to Rome,

  • through the various wars and through the enslavement of large

  • numbers of people, the city grew significantly in

  • size.

  • And so by this time, by the third century,

  • the Servian Wall was essentially useless to protect

  • Rome from those barbarians that were literally at the gates at

  • this particular point in Roman history,

  • so they needed to build that wall to protect the city.

  • But the other reason was because of what was going on,

  • on the frontiers, because Rome was more in danger

  • than it had ever been before.

  • Because of the kind of political and economic situation

  • in Rome that I've just described,

  • there was a need for further stability and the need to build

  • this second set of walls: again,

  • the so-called Aurelian Walls.

  • And this plan shows you how much further out they went than

  • the Servian Walls, all the way to the Tiber River.

  • It didn't encompass the area across the Tiber,

  • where Hadrian's tomb, Hadrian's mausoleum,

  • the Castel Sant'Angelo is located, but for the most part

  • it did cover the main of the city.

  • And you can see, it went far enough out that it

  • even encompassed some of the major city roads,

  • or the beginnings of some of those major city roads.

  • A view of the Aurelian Walls itself,

  • very well preserved, here on the right-hand side of

  • the screen, and a comparison of them with

  • the Servian Walls, on the left.

  • With regard to the Aurelian Walls, they are named for the

  • emperor Aurelian, who was emperor of Rome between

  • 270 and 275 A.D.

  • We believe that Aurelian began the walls, either in 270 or 271.

  • They were not finished by his death in 275,

  • and they were completed by his successor, a man by the name of

  • Probus, P-r-o-b-u-s; Probus completed the Aurelian

  • Walls, and dedicated them right after Aurelian's death,

  • in 275 A.D.

  • The Aurelian Walls had a twelve-mile circuit around the

  • city of Rome.

  • They were originally 25 and one half feet tall,

  • and there were eighteen major gateways in the Aurelian Walls;

  • eighteen major gateways.

  • I think you can see from this view on the right-hand side of

  • the screen that the building materials were concrete faced

  • with brick -- brick-faced concrete.

  • You see that very clearly here.

  • And, of course, it's important to keep in mind

  • that that is different than what the original Republican walls

  • were made out of.

  • Those were made out of cut-stone, ashlar blocks.

  • You see them here in this section of the Servian Walls,

  • that I show you once again, blocks that are laid in the

  • scheme of headers and stretchers,

  • that we talked about at the very beginning of the semester,

  • when we discussed early Roman wall building,

  • both in Rome and in the early colonies.

  • And here again the Aurelian Walls, with their up-to-date

  • concrete faced with brick.

  • But it's a sign of the times that scholars who have examined

  • these bricks have determined that they were not all new

  • bricks, that many of them were re-used

  • bricks from earlier periods, from the previous century in

  • particular.

  • And the reason for that probably has to do with the fact

  • that again because there was so little architectural activity

  • during this period there was simply no need to make bricks in

  • large numbers, and when they needed them for

  • this particular project, they reached back and used some

  • that had been lying around of earlier manufacture.

  • So I think again that underscores the incertitude of

  • this particular period of time.

  • Here's another very good view of the Aurelian Walls,

  • as they look today, brick-faced concrete

  • construction once again.

  • And what's impressive about the Aurelian Walls is how much of

  • them are preserved.

  • When I showed you the Servian Walls,

  • we could only look at bits and pieces of those walls,

  • preserved in different parts of Rome,

  • especially near the Rome train station.

  • But in the case of the Aurelian Walls,

  • we have a very large extent of those walls still preserved

  • today, which is a tribute to how well

  • they were built, that they have stood the test

  • of time.

  • And, in fact, when one visits Rome,

  • when you come into Rome from Leonardo da Vinci Airport,

  • the first things that you see of the city are the walls.

  • You go through those walls and it announces to you,

  • of course, that you are in fact about to enter the city of Rome.

  • I mentioned that the Aurelian Walls had eighteen gateways.

  • Some of them are still preserved, and I want to show

  • you one of them here, just to give you a sense of

  • what these gateways were like.

  • This is the so-called Porta Appia.

  • It also dates to the same time as the walls,

  • 275 A.D.; called the Porta Appia because it is at the exact

  • location of the Via Appia, or the Appian Way in Rome.

  • The gate--I'm going to show you how the gate looked in the time,

  • in 275, and then how it was altered somewhat later.

  • You can see from the Monument List that although it was built

  • originally in 275, it was restored by two

  • Byzantine emperors by the name of Honorius and Arcadius,

  • so this is in the post-Roman period,

  • and they did that in A.D.

  • 401 to 402.

  • And the gate, as you see it today,

  • extremely well preserved, is the gate of the restoration

  • of the fifth century A.D.; whereas this view,

  • this restored view from Ward-Perkins,

  • shows you what the gate would've looked like in 275.

  • In 275 it had two arcuated entranceways,

  • as you can see well here.

  • It had rounded towers, rounded towers.

  • It had small windows with arcuations at the top,

  • as you can also see, curvature at the top.

  • And then Ward-Perkins believes--there's some

  • controversy about this--but he believes it was already

  • crenulated in the third century A.D.

  • If you compare that to the gate as restored by Honorius and

  • Arcadius, you can see that they have removed one of the

  • entranceways.

  • There's a single arcuated entranceway now in the center of

  • the gate, and they have also encased the

  • rounded towers in these square blocks,

  • as you can see here, they've left the uppermost part

  • rounded but not the bottom part.

  • So they have changed it somewhat, but I think it still

  • gives you, again, a very good sense of

  • what this gate, and many of the other gates

  • that were part of this very important defensive wall system,

  • built in the third century, looked like.

  • What we see happening toward the end of the third century

  • A.D.

  • is the return of a centralized, of a strong,

  • centralized government to Rome and to the Roman Empire,

  • after the bloody third century A.D.

  • and its numerous fly-by-night emperors, as I call them here.

  • And the vehicle of this return of a stable government was the

  • foundation of what we call the Tetrarchy;

  • the Tetrarchy, which means literally four-man

  • rule.

  • The Tetrarchy was the brainchild of a man by the name

  • of Diocletian.

  • Diocletian was a Dalmatian; not a dog, but somebody who

  • came from ancient Dalmatia, now Croatia,

  • from Dalmatia.

  • He was an imperial bodyguard who rose to great heights and

  • eventually became emperor of Rome.

  • He began his own rise to power in 283 A.D.; 283 A.D.

  • But it was in 293, after ten years into trying to

  • go it alone, that he realized that the Roman

  • Empire had become much too vast for one man to be able to govern

  • it alone, and he came up with this

  • extraordinary idea to have four-man rule.

  • We've seen co-emperors before, we've seen two-man rule--

  • there was two-man rule initially with Marcus Aurelius

  • and Lucius Versus, for example--but we have never

  • before seen a four-man rule.

  • But he felt that the Empire was sprawling enough that it really

  • needed emperors in four different locations to enable

  • the Empire to be governed and to enable stability to be returned.

  • And that was the concept of the Tetrarchy, which again he

  • founded in 293.

  • By founding the Tetrarchy, he made himself the main

  • emperor, the Augustus,

  • but the Augustus in the eastern part of the Empire,

  • and I'm sure he chose that because of his own roots in

  • Dalmatia, in again what is now Croatia.

  • He chose a man by the name of Galerius to be his Caesar,

  • to be his second-in-command, in the eastern part of the

  • Empire.

  • He selected Maximian, Maximian to be Augustus in the

  • West, and then Constantius Chlorus to

  • be the Caesar in the West: Constantius Chlorus,

  • more well known as the father of Constantine the Great than he

  • is as a Tetrarch, but he again,

  • Constantius Chlorus, was the designated Caesar in

  • the West.

  • Order was restored through the vehicle of the Tetrarchy.

  • And what that means for us, in this course on Roman

  • Architecture, is that stability returned,

  • stability that enabled major architectural commissions to

  • once again be done, both in Rome and also around

  • the provinces, and particularly in the

  • provinces that these individuals made their capitals,

  • in a sense, and where they lived, and where we'll see they

  • built their own palaces.

  • So when we speak of tetrarchic architecture,

  • I think we have to keep in mind that we are talking not just

  • about the renovation of Rome-- I mean, Rome itself,

  • the renaissance, let's call it that instead of

  • renovation; the renaissance of Rome,

  • Rome's rebirth under the Tetrarchy and under Diocletian--

  • but we are also talking about architecture,

  • as we'll see, that was put up in the

  • provinces, also under the aegis of the

  • Tetrarchs.

  • I want to just show you what the Tetrarchs looked like,

  • and their portraiture is also illustrative of what their major

  • architectural agenda was.

  • We see a coin portrait on the left-hand side of the screen of

  • Diocletian, that gives his title,

  • Augustus, as you can see here: a typical Roman coin profile

  • portrait that shows him with a closely cropped military

  • hairstyle and beard.

  • But the much more--and he is represented this way in his

  • coins, you know, from 283, the first decade from

  • 283 to about 293.

  • But the image that becomes the image of the Tetrarchs as a

  • whole is the sort of thing that you see here.

  • We begin to see, with the formation of the

  • Tetrarchy, representations of them as a group.

  • It's sort of a one for all and all for one concept,

  • that they are shown in mutual support,

  • holding each other, in fact embracing each other,

  • in mutual support as they try to re-stabilize the government.

  • This is a wonderful group portrait of the four Tetrarchs.

  • It's done in this reddish-purplish stone that

  • comes from Egypt called porphyry,

  • p-o-r-p-h-y-r-y, and a stone that we'll see used

  • extensively in this period.

  • This portrait is carved out of that.

  • We don't--we have thoughts about where it might have come

  • from, perhaps even Constantinople.

  • But it ended up in Venice, and any of you who make your

  • way to San Marco in Venice-- it's not immediately obvious

  • where it is, but if you stand in front of

  • San Marco, facing it, and go off a bit to

  • the right, you will see this incredible

  • porphyry group, hugging one corner of the

  • building over here.

  • And again you can see them--it's done--what's

  • interesting to us, I think, is the fact that it's

  • done in a very geometric abstract style.

  • It doesn't look realistic.

  • They are done--their proportions are stumpy and their

  • bodies, their military costumes and

  • their faces seem almost more like--

  • and the hats that they wear, these Pannonian caps--

  • seem almost more like geometric shapes than they seem like real

  • clothing and the like.

  • And that is part and parcel of a certain aesthetic that we see

  • developing, this interest in geometric and abstract forms,

  • that we see in portraiture.

  • But we also see, which is important for us

  • today, we see that in architecture as well,

  • that interest.

  • And I think--and perhaps it's going too far,

  • but I don't think so--I think that the taste for that

  • particular formulation has to do in part with this,

  • the fact that they believe they have returned,

  • or they're trying to return stability to the government,

  • so they choose these very solid, geometric,

  • abstract forms to represent their images --

  • be they portraiture or be they, as we'll see,

  • monumental works of architecture.

  • Perhaps it's not surprising to see that when Diocletian begins

  • to put up monumental architecture in Rome,

  • he chooses first public monuments, public monuments that

  • are going to be seen and that are going to speak to this

  • return of stability to Rome, and he chooses to put them in

  • as visible place as he possibly can.

  • And what's the most visible place in the city of Rome but

  • the Roman Forum, the great Forum Romanum.

  • So we see Diocletian commissioning a monument to put

  • up in the Roman Forum.

  • That monument is referred to by a variety of names.

  • We usually call it--and I've indicated this for you on the

  • Monument List-- we usually call it,

  • the preferred name for it is the Decennial Monument,

  • the Decennial Monument.

  • But it is also sometimes called the Five Column Monument,

  • and it is sometimes called the Tetrarchic Monument.

  • It's called the Tetrarchic Monument because it honors the

  • four Tetrarchs.

  • It's called the Five Column Monument because it's made up,

  • as we'll see, of five columns.

  • And it's called the Decennial Monument because it honors the

  • decennalia, the ten-year rule of the

  • Tetrarchy; the Tetrarchy founded in 293,

  • the monument is put up in 303, so ten years of rule.

  • And it also honored the twentieth anniversary,

  • the vicennalia, v-i-c-e-n-n-a-l-i-a,

  • the vicennalia, of Diocletian,

  • because Diocletian had become emperor in 283.

  • So he's lasted twenty years--which is extraordinary

  • considering some emperors of the third century only lasted a

  • matter of months-- he's lasted twenty years,

  • and his Tetrarchy has lasted ten years.

  • And it's time for a celebration, and he puts up a

  • major monument in the Roman Forum.

  • Let me show you via this map first, this plan of the Roman

  • Forum as it would've looked between the third century and

  • the seventh century A.D.

  • We see a number of buildings that we have looked at together

  • before.

  • We can see in the uppermost part the Tabularium,

  • the Temple of Vespasian.

  • We see the Arch of Septimius Severus up here.

  • We see some buildings we did not talk about;

  • for example, the Temple of the Divine Julius

  • Caesar, and a couple of basilicas that

  • were put here in the late Republic and into--

  • and finished in the Augustan period.

  • The two buildings that we're going to look at today are the

  • Senate House, or the Curia Julia,

  • but also at the Rostra, or what's behind the Rostra.

  • You see the Rostra there, right in the center;

  • that's the dais from which major speeches were made.

  • If you look right behind the Rostra, you will see four

  • columns on a curve, and then another column right

  • behind them.

  • That is the so-called Five Column Monument,

  • of the Tetrarchy, that we see there,

  • right behind the Rostra.

  • Now here we're looking at a Google Earth image,

  • from the same vantage point, that shows us again the

  • Colosseum, the Victor Emmanuel Monument,

  • the Capitoline Hill, the Palatine Hill,

  • the Circus Maximus.

  • Here the Forum in the center.

  • And we can locate the Five Column Monument by--

  • let me see, here we have the Curia,

  • here we have the Arch of Septimius Severus,

  • and then right next to the Arch of Septimius Severus,

  • essentially to the left of it, was the location of the Five

  • Column Monument, right behind the Rostra.

  • Now the problem is that all we have left of this so-called Five

  • Column Monument is a single base, one base of one of the

  • columns.

  • And you can see that base on display,

  • right in front of, on a base, right--

  • on a base, on a different base made out of brick,

  • as you see here--the base of that one column,

  • right in front of the Arch of Septimius Severus,

  • dwarfed by the Arch of Septimius Severus.

  • In fact, I'm always on the lookout when I'm in that part of

  • the Forum to see if anybody looks at the column base,

  • and nobody ever does, they're so taken both with the

  • Arch of Septimius Severus, with the Baroque church that

  • lies behind and with the Curia or Senate House that we're all

  • going to look at today, that they don't happen to

  • notice this.

  • But that is all that survives.

  • So you might ask yourself, well then how in the world do

  • we know there was a five column monument behind the Rostra,

  • and that this is one of those columns?

  • Because we have a depiction of it on the Arch of Constantine,

  • which we'll be looking at on Tuesday, the early

  • fourth-century A.D.

  • arch.

  • One of the scenes that shows Constantine himself,

  • is located in the Roman Forum, and we see Constantine,

  • now headless, with some of his attendants and

  • other individuals, standing on the Rostra,

  • making an address to the people.

  • He's surrounded--this is very interesting,

  • we'll talk about why next time--surrounded by seated

  • portraits of Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius,

  • identifiable by their portraits, and he's making an

  • address.

  • And if you look very carefully you will see behind him are five

  • columns; five columns that have statues

  • on top of them.

  • That is the Five Column Monument that stood behind the

  • Rostra.

  • So that, combined with that preserved base,

  • gives us a very good sense of what that monument might have

  • looked like.

  • Now you may be asking yourself, "What is she talking

  • about, five columns?

  • There are only four Tetrarchs.

  • Is she misspeaking here?"

  • No, I'm speaking correctly, there were five columns,

  • but one of those columns was put up to Jupiter,

  • Jupiter: the head god, Jupiter who was the patron god

  • of Diocletian.

  • So we see Jupiter in one column on his own,

  • back behind the others, and then the other four columns

  • of the Tetrarchs, each with a base with

  • sculptural figural decoration down below.

  • The shaft was plain, and then a statue of each of

  • the four Tetrarchs and a statue of Jupiter on the top.

  • And we think that the column and statue of Jupiter were

  • probably a little bit taller, as is indicated here,

  • because he was after all a god, than the others.

  • And you can see the way it is located behind the Rostra,

  • so that again if someone were speaking from the Rostra,

  • this is exactly what you'd be seeing behind,

  • just as we see in the Arch of Constantine.

  • You also see its location, as it faces the Temple of

  • Divine Julius Caesar--which is probably not a coincidence;

  • we do see that Diocletian tried to link himself to Caesar and

  • others, great leaders of the Roman past--and then this

  • basilica completed by Augustus.

  • This was a very carefully chosen location by Diocletian,

  • to link himself, after this bloody third

  • century, as I mentioned,

  • to link himself with the great leaders of the Roman past.

  • I want to show you quickly, because this is again,

  • of course, in architecture and not in sculpture,

  • but I do want to show you just quickly the scenes on the base.

  • Because I think one of the interesting detective work one

  • can do is to try to figure out, since we have only one base,

  • whose base was it, which of the four Tetrarchs,

  • or was it Jupiter's base?

  • And I've played that game myself, and I'll give you my

  • idea, and you'll see whether you think it's a good one or not.

  • We look at the scene at the top uppermost part –

  • we're looking at the four sides of that sculptured base.

  • At the top you see two victories, with a shield,

  • and that shield has the word in the center,

  • decennalia, decennalia:

  • that's how we know it's dedicated to the decennial

  • anniversary, ten-year rule, of the Tetrarchs.

  • You can also see barbarians down below, so a reference to

  • those who have been conquered.

  • And if you look very carefully, you'll see that the figures are

  • outlined in the way that we saw them at Orange and also at St.

  • my.

  • And then some of the items, including the arms and armor,

  • are actually inscribed, carved, on the stone,

  • directly on the stone.

  • So this very interesting use of outlining here.

  • Here I don't think the reason for it is the same.

  • I don't think they're looking at copy books,

  • but rather that there has been--there's now an interest in

  • this kind of outlining for visual effect.

  • Up here we see a sacrifice of three animals being brought in

  • for sacrifice, and the men with their axes who

  • are going to slit their throats ultimately --

  • the sacrifice obviously in honor of this decennial

  • celebration, this anniversary celebration,

  • making reference to ten-year rule of the Tetrarchy.

  • Here's a scene down here--unfortunately,

  • in all of these scenes where we seem to have the emperor or

  • emperors, the heads are no longer preserved.

  • So here we have a sacrifice scene, also a sacrifice being

  • made in honor of this decennial anniversary,

  • but the emperor, represented here,

  • who was sacrificing, whose base this probably was,

  • his face is gone.

  • But you can see he's accompanied by Roma,

  • by the Senate, the personification of the

  • Senate, by Mars, by Victory,

  • who crowns him with a wreath, as you can see here.

  • And this looks like a figure of Sol Helios, with the rayed

  • crown.

  • So a whole panoply of divinities by whom he is being

  • honored and with whom he wants to associate himself.

  • This is the most important relief, I believe,

  • in terms of speculating about whose base this might have been.

  • We see four figures, four adult males,

  • in the foreground, with togas, all of them

  • headless unfortunately.

  • But four of them--that's no coincidence, all four standing

  • there.

  • So while we see one of them--this is his base--one of

  • them sacrificing here; I guess one could argue it's

  • Diocletian as the head of the Tetrarchy, that would be another

  • possibility.

  • But the four of them represented here.

  • But if you look very closely, one of them is accompanied by a

  • child.

  • So my speculation would be since one of them is accompanied

  • by a child, and since it is Constantine who

  • was thought most likely to be the one to eventually succeed

  • the Tetrarchs, or become a Tetrarch himself,

  • I would speculate-- and this is pure

  • speculation--that this may have been the base of Constantius

  • Chlorus, of his father Constantius

  • Chlorus, and that the clue there is Constantine.

  • Another building that Diocletian was interested in,

  • in the Roman Forum, in terms of associating himself

  • with Caesar and also with Augustus,

  • was the Senate House.

  • The Curia Julia it is called, the Curia Julia:

  • because it was actually not built in the Diocletianic

  • period, but built initially--begun by

  • Caesar, begun by Julius Caesar to

  • provide Rome with a Senate House in the Roman Forum --

  • begun by Caesar and completed by Augustus after Caesar's

  • death.

  • But the building was--and that's why it's named Curia

  • Julia after the Julian family, that Caesar,

  • and also Augustus, were a part of.

  • But that building, the Curia Julia,

  • was destroyed, very seriously destroyed,

  • in a fire in Rome in 283 A.D.

  • And so what Diocletian does is he restores it between 284--

  • he begins already in 284, well before the formation of

  • the Tetrarchy, and he completes it in 305

  • A.D.; this restoration.

  • It continues to be called the Curia Julia,

  • but it is at this point a Diocletianic building,

  • but one that clearly--where he instructed his designers to try

  • to keep it as close to the original as possible.

  • Now what you're looking at here on the right-hand side of the

  • screen is a coin that comes from the period of the emperor

  • Augustus, and it purports to represent--I

  • don't think there's any question that it represents,

  • given its inscription and so on--the Senate House in Rome,

  • as it would have looked as completed by Augustus,

  • and he's in fact celebrating the completion of this monument,

  • and associating himself, through this coin,

  • with his divine adoptive father, Julius Caesar.

  • If we look at the form--if we look at the exterior of this

  • monument, as it is depicted on the coin,

  • you will see that it is a regular square,

  • the front of the building looks like a square,

  • with a very large pediment at the top,

  • although I think that was accentuated here,

  • its size, in order to allow the die cutter to include the

  • sculpture in the pediment, and also the sculpture

  • decorating the eaves.

  • We see the doorway right here.

  • We see there seems to be a triple window,

  • up above the doorway.

  • And if you look very carefully you will see that there seems to

  • be a portico, a series of columns,

  • that are there to relive the severity of the otherwise very

  • geometrically ordered façade.

  • So that's what we think it looked like in the time of

  • Caesar, based on that coin.

  • You see it over here in plan.

  • This is a plan of the forum in Rome, in the Augustan period,

  • 10 A.D.

  • We see the buildings that were there at that time:

  • the basilicas; the Temple of Divine Julius

  • Caesar; the Rostra, but of course

  • without the Five Column Monument;

  • no Arch of Septimius Severus.

  • But we do see the Curia.

  • And you see it here in plan as a very plain,

  • open, rectangular box, in a sense.

  • So even in its Caesarian and Augustan beginnings,

  • it seems to have been a very straightforward,

  • matter-of-fact kind of a building.

  • This is a restored view of what we believe it looked like after

  • the restoration by Diocletian.

  • You won't be surprised to hear that the materials were

  • different, that it's a building--in its

  • restored version it was made out of concrete faced with brick,

  • exposed brick.

  • So very much a building of its own time.

  • It would not have looked like that in the time of Caesar and

  • Augustus.

  • But they have, in every other way,

  • they have kept to the underlying geometry of the form,

  • to the use of the triple window with a curved top,

  • as you can see here an arcuated top,

  • a pediment up above.

  • We don't know whether the second version had pedimental

  • sculpture in it, or other decorative sculpture.

  • The doorway down below.

  • But the severity of the brick-faced,

  • the exposed brick façade has been alleviated somewhat by

  • the placement of marble revetment at the bottom part of

  • the wall, behind a series of columns.

  • So they have kept that portico, that set of columns,

  • to relive the severity, but also to make this building

  • look, as much as they could,

  • like the original Caesarian and Augustan structure.

  • This is what the Curia looks like today.

  • It is extremely well preserved, as you can see.

  • Yes, it's lacking its marble revetment, and it's lacking its

  • portico.

  • But in every other way you can see very well exactly what this

  • building looked like in the time of Diocletian:

  • concrete faced with brick, with the very simple windows,

  • and this very geometric, abstract ordering.

  • Which again I believe--you know, I think the explanation

  • for that is twofold: one,

  • that they are trying to maintain the look of the

  • original Julian building, but also because this is again

  • the aesthetic of the time, this decision to make buildings

  • in a very geometrically ordered, abstract way;

  • I believe again to reflect the stability of their new

  • government.

  • This building, the Curia Julia,

  • owes its excellent condition to the fact that it,

  • like so many buildings we've talked about this semester,

  • was reused over time.

  • We know that it was turned into a church already in the seventh

  • century B.C.; that it was restored in the

  • twelfth and in the sixteen century A.D.--did I say seventh

  • century B.C.?

  • If I did, I meant A.D.; seventh century A.D.;

  • twelfth and sixteenth centuries, and then again in the

  • seventeenth century.

  • And it was in the seventeenth century that it,

  • like so many other Roman structures,

  • was transformed into a Baroque church by an architect by the

  • name of Martino Longhi the Younger--

  • I've put his name on the Monument List for you,

  • Martino Longhi the Younger--and it was re-consecrated as

  • San'Adriano, Saint Hadrian,

  • al Foro Romano, San'Adriano al Foro Romano,

  • Saint Hadrian in the Roman Forum was the church.

  • And when I say Baroque church, I mean a Baroque church.

  • It was deconsecrated by Mussolini in the 1930s,

  • Mussolini returning it to its original ancient form,

  • as you can see over here.

  • But this photograph shows the work that was being done in the

  • '30s to dismantle this Baroque church into which the Curia had

  • become.

  • I mean, it's really hard to believe that this was the Curia

  • in the seventeenth century, but that's exactly what it

  • looked like, as well as in the early

  • twentieth century.

  • And you can see a bell-tower had been added,

  • buttresses had been added to the structure,

  • completely encasing the Curia in a Baroque church.

  • And we see that being dismantled in this view over

  • here.

  • And I have a view I can show you also of the interior.

  • This was the interior in the seventeenth century;

  • impossible to see that original simple box-like interior that

  • was there in the time of Diocletian,

  • and probably there in the time of Caesar and Augustus,

  • so filled is it with the usual Baroque paraphernalia of

  • elaborate stucco work and angels flying to the skies and these--

  • not that we haven't seen this kind of thing in Roman

  • architecture, we of course have.

  • But you can see that the original shape of this

  • particular building has been completely disguised by Martino

  • Longhi the Younger as he redoes the Curia as a Baroque church.

  • This is--when they took all of that Baroque accretion off,

  • this is what they ended up with.

  • This is what the Curia looked like--

  • probably very similar to this in the time of Caesar and

  • Augustus-- what it looked like under

  • Diocletian, and what it again looks like

  • today.

  • You can see from this view this very simple, box-like shape for

  • the interior of this structure: plain walls;

  • a coffered, a flat coffered ceiling;

  • the only light brought in by a series of very simple windows,

  • with arcuated tops, allowing light into the system.

  • And then down below--again the brick facing,

  • the concrete and brick facing exposed--

  • but with the down below probably some marble revetment

  • on the wall down here.

  • Very simple niches, arcuated and rectangular

  • niches, but very, very simple ones.

  • And then here you see the benches,

  • the stone benches, on which the senators would

  • have sat when they were deliberating--

  • or stood in front of, because they got up a lot and

  • orated-- but stood in front of when they

  • delivered their speeches, or sat.

  • And then down below the original marble revetted floor

  • is still preserved.

  • And I can show you two views here, in color,

  • of that floor, to give you a sense--

  • all done in marbles, marbles brought from different

  • parts of the world.

  • But the usual colors that the Romans liked for most of their

  • marble pavements, a white or off-white,

  • maroon, green and black, but very nicely done for

  • this--very simple, very geometrically ordered,

  • but very beautiful interior.

  • With regard to public architecture,

  • Diocletian also built a major bath in Rome,

  • following the lead of Caracalla and many emperors before him,

  • to provide for the Roman people a place where they could go and

  • enjoy themselves, as well as learn.

  • Because you'll remember that by this time these major imperial

  • bath structures-- and this is one of

  • those--placed the bathing block inside a much larger precinct,

  • that included rooms around it that served as lecture halls and

  • meeting halls and seminar rooms and places for Greek and Latin

  • libraries and the like, and we see that same scheme

  • being used here.

  • The baths were built between A.D.

  • 298 and 306 by Diocletian in Rome.

  • They're located near the train station today;

  • so very close to those remaining fragments of the

  • Servian Walls.

  • And you see again that plan here.

  • And you see that the outer precinct has one of these large

  • hemicycles that may have been used for performances,

  • as you can see, and that it is like the other

  • imperial baths that we've looked at,

  • with the central bathing rooms in the center,

  • in axial relationship to one another,

  • and in the usual sequence, and then with other rooms

  • disposed around them on either side,

  • in a symmetrical way.

  • We see at Number 4 the natatio or swimming pool.

  • We see--which has a scalloped, the bottom side,

  • as you see it here, is scalloped,

  • the wall is.

  • Number 3 is the frigidarium,

  • the cold room of the baths, which had a triple groin

  • vaulted ceiling.

  • From there we go into the tepidarium;

  • you see it here, a small circular structure with

  • radiating arms that give it a cross shape.

  • And then down below a very interesting caldarium,

  • because we see that Diocletian and his architects have rejected

  • the round caldarium, with the radiating alcoves,

  • looking so much like the Pantheon,

  • as we discussed, and almost as large,

  • from the Baths of Caracalla.

  • They've rejected that in favor of a more rectangular shape,

  • that's more similar to the shape of the frigidarium,

  • but with radiating apses that have a series of columns that

  • allow views and vistas from one to the other.

  • This is another version of the same plan, from Ward-Perkins in

  • this particular case that shows again the natatio,

  • the frigidarium.

  • Here you can see better the way in which the circle becomes a

  • cross shape for the tepidarium;

  • and then here the caldarium below,

  • where you can also see better, I believe,

  • the columns on those alcoves that allow views,

  • both from inside out and outside in.

  • And here still another one.

  • This is the one that you have on your Monument List that shows

  • you those spaces, once again from the other

  • direction.

  • The natatio, where you can see very well the

  • scalloped wall; the frigidarium,

  • where you can see the triple-groin vault;

  • the tepidarium with its round shape and radiating arms;

  • and then most importantly the caldarium with probably

  • also triple groin vaulted, just like the

  • frigidarium, but with radiating alcoves;

  • and then all of these other rooms disposed among them

  • symmetrically.

  • Now what's very interesting also, in terms of more

  • architecture in later times, is the Baths of Diocletian were

  • also reused, but in this case not for a

  • single building but for a variety of buildings,

  • including a major museum of antiquities,

  • a planetarium, and also a church,

  • the famous Church of Santa Maria degli Angeli,

  • Saint Mary of the Angels.

  • Now while this plan is still on the screen,

  • I want to show you when the Church of Santa Maria degli

  • Angeli was redesigned-- and one of the redesigners,

  • by the way, was Michelangelo--when it was

  • redesigned what they did was they took the alcove--

  • from where we're standing the bottom alcove of the

  • caldarium-- they used that as the curved

  • façade of their church.

  • They used the tepidarium as the vestibule.

  • They used the frigidarium as the main

  • space of the church.

  • And also and they--and so that becomes the church,

  • that main, the bottom part of the caldarium,

  • the tepidarium, and the frigidarium

  • become the church.

  • And then some of these other spaces are used again for other

  • kinds of buildings, including a planetarium.

  • I call your attention especially to the ones at the

  • upper right and the upper left, both of which are octagonal

  • spaces, as you can see comparable to

  • earlier octagonal spaces under Nero or under Domitian.

  • And one of those rooms, this one to our right,

  • but to the left when you're facing the entrance to the

  • church today, is still very well preserved;

  • and I'm going to show you that in a moment.

  • First here's a view into the church,

  • into the nave of Santa Maria degli Angeli,

  • which again what you're looking at is the original

  • frigidarium of the Baths of Diocletian.

  • You can see all the things one usually sees in a

  • frigidarium, and I show you a restored view

  • of what we think the frigidarium of the Baths

  • of Caracalla looked like in antiquity.

  • And you can see there's a close resemblance between the two.

  • The groin vaults are still preserved.

  • We see original columns here, granite columns,

  • with capitals--some of the capitals are ancient,

  • some of them are not--and we see a lot of color,

  • just as we would've seen in the original Baths of Diocletian.

  • One difference is that we see the groin vaults in the Santa

  • Maria degli Angeli are white, and that is the work of

  • Michelangelo.

  • Michelangelo decided that he wanted something much plainer

  • for the vaulting of Santa Maria degli Angeli,

  • and it was he who stuccoed it over,

  • and no one ever dared to change Michelangelo's work.

  • But another architect by the name of Luigi Vanvitelli,

  • V-a-n-v-i-t-e-l-l-i--love the name,

  • Luigi Vanvitelli--was at work in the Santa Maria degli Angeli

  • interior, in the eighteenth century;

  • precisely in 1749.

  • He came in to spruce up the decoration,

  • and it was Vanvitelli who added to the original Roman granite

  • columns, who added these mottled--you

  • see these mottled pilasters; I'll show you a detail of them

  • in a moment with their capitals--some new capitals to

  • match the ancient Roman capitals.

  • He added a lot of the stucco decoration that you see here

  • now, and a lot of the altarpieces

  • were put in, in the seventeenth and

  • eighteenth century, to make it the church that it

  • needed to become.

  • But if I show you a detail of Vanvitelli's work,

  • you can see--you know, as you stand in Santa Maria

  • degli Angeli, one tries to figure out what's

  • ancient and what is modern-- but you can see here what seems

  • to be a granite shaft, from an ancient column,

  • with a new Corinthian capital, designed by Vanvitelli,

  • that imitates those, the Roman ones that are there.

  • But all of this mottled work, and all of the stucco

  • decoration that you see over here, added by Vanvitelli in the

  • eighteenth century.

  • But you've seen enough Roman, ancient Roman architecture,

  • especially of the baroque kind, to know that this sort of thing

  • did exist in Roman times.

  • And I think Vanvitelli has actually done a pretty good job

  • of giving us a sense of what the figidarium of these baths

  • would have looked like in the time of Diocletian.

  • Now here's the façade, and so you see exactly what I

  • described before.

  • This is one of the alcoves.

  • You can see the concrete brick-faced alcove that they

  • have--I mean, this is the simplest

  • façade of any in Rome.

  • There's nothing quite like this.

  • But it's so typical of the Italians to take wonderful

  • advantage of what there is.

  • And so in this case they decided best to leave it as it

  • is; it speaks for itself.

  • They just use that alcove.

  • They added a couple of doors, created a niche,

  • slapped the name, Basilica Santa Maria degli

  • Angeli, on the front,

  • very simply, put a cross at the top,

  • and this became the façade into the church,

  • and it has remained this, to this day.

  • Here's another view of the Baths of Diocletian,

  • as they look today.

  • We're looking at the outside, where we can see the outside of

  • the frigidarium, with its windows and its groin

  • vaulting exposed on the outside.

  • This is the tepidarium, and the roofing of the

  • tepidarium.

  • And over here you can see the curved façade that's--

  • the part of the caldarium that survives

  • uses the façade of the church.

  • And then as you stand here, if you go to the right,

  • you can go and look at what one of those octagonal rooms looks

  • like today.

  • And what they've done, they've taken advantage--this

  • is a spectacular space.

  • This was just--we don't know exactly what purpose this served

  • in the bath originally, but it's actually a space

  • that's more similar to the caldarium of Caracalla's

  • Baths than it is to anything else in the Baths of Diocletian.

  • But you can see that they have taken advantage of this

  • extraordinary octagonal shape, with radiating alcoves,

  • going back to Nero's Domus Transitoria,

  • Domus Aurea, to use as a place to display

  • some of the greatest works of sculpture in the part of these

  • baths that now serves as a museum.

  • One very interesting feature though that I want to point out

  • to you, that will be important for

  • something later we talk about today and for Tuesday's lecture,

  • is the fact that you do see them using here windows in the

  • lower part of the dome: windows,

  • arcuated windows, to allow light into the system.

  • We see this development in late antiquity where they move from

  • providing light through the oculus to providing light

  • through a series of windows.

  • And again they're sophisticated enough in their use of concrete

  • to be able to do that, and we see that's a trend.

  • Diocletian was as interested in private architecture as he was

  • in public architecture.

  • He was a man--you can tell a lot about him just from what

  • I've told you.

  • He was very organized and he planned ahead for his own

  • abdication eventually, his own retirement,

  • and he wanted to live ultimately back where his roots

  • were, on the Croatian,

  • on the Dalmatian Coast.

  • And he built for himself a palace in a place called Split,

  • in what is now Croatia.

  • And I show you again the map of this part of the world.

  • If you look at Pola, that we--I can't reach it from

  • where I am, but if you look at Pola,

  • where that is, and down the Dalmatian Coast,

  • you'll see Split, right below that.

  • Dubrovnik is at the base.

  • This is actually a view I took of Dubrovnik,

  • just to give you a sense of this part of the world.

  • It's magnificently beautiful there, and one can imagine why

  • Diocletian was drawn to return to his homeland for his palace.

  • So we are looking here at the plan of the Palace of

  • Diocletian, which is extremely well preserved;

  • this is from Ward-Perkins.

  • And you should be immediately struck by this palace,

  • because it--which dates, by the way, to 300 to 305 A.D.

  • We see here something that I'm sure you've all noticed already,

  • and that is that he has built this palace in the form of a

  • Roman castrum; it's a Roman military camp.

  • It is a little city; it's a city in its own right,

  • in the form of a Roman military camp.

  • Why did he do that?

  • That's interesting.

  • Well I think it had something to do with the fact that the

  • structure was located on the sea,

  • right on a promontory on the sea, and could easily have been

  • attacked.

  • And times were still--he was still--

  • he had brought stability back, yes,

  • but he was very aware of what had preceded him,

  • in the third century, and desirous of protecting

  • himself and his possessions in his palace,

  • on the Dalmatian Coast, and so he builds it in the form

  • of a castrum.

  • You can see all the elements of a typical Roman military camp,

  • just as we saw in city building, urban planning,

  • from the Republic on.

  • It's rectangular in shape.

  • It has walls.

  • It has watchtowers; you can see they are

  • alternately rectangular and octagonal watchtowers.

  • It has entrances and exits.

  • It has a cardo and a decumanus that cross at

  • the intersection of the palace.

  • You can see there are--the main gateway is on the northern side;

  • the southern side faces the sea.

  • As you walk from the northern entranceway,

  • along the cardo and the decumanus,

  • so to speak, of this palace,

  • you will see that they are colonnaded,

  • just as they usually are in the eastern part of the Empire,

  • but not in the western part of the Empire.

  • As you walk along from the entranceway, you enter into a

  • public court over here, very elaborate,

  • that's still preserved, with an arcuated lintel;

  • I'm going to show you that in a moment.

  • Then into this domed area here, with alcoves.

  • But note that on either side of this open space,

  • with the arcuated lintel, which is called the peristyle

  • of the villa, you can see on one side a small

  • temple, which is a temple to Jupiter,

  • the patron god of Diocletian, and on the other side a

  • mausoleum, an octagonal tomb.

  • Now that should strike you as very interesting and very

  • unusual.

  • We have not seen a tomb as part of palace architecture before.

  • This is new, to late antiquity.

  • This probably has to do in part with again Diocletian planning

  • this as his place of retirement.

  • He knew he was going to retire there,

  • he knew he was going to die there, and he wanted to make

  • sure that he supplied for himself a tomb--

  • he was not going to be buried in one of these major mausolea

  • in Rome; he wanted to be buried at home,

  • and so he plans for this by building an octagonal--

  • not a round, like Augustus and Hadrian--

  • but an octagonal tomb, with a porch here in the villa.

  • And note that it is right across from the Temple of

  • Jupiter; no coincidence there.

  • Go through the domed room, domed space,

  • into the private wing of the house.

  • You see a room here with a basilican shape.

  • We're not exactly sure what it was used for,

  • but probably some kind of reception hall.

  • And then here a series of interestingly shaped rooms,

  • that was where the emperor's private quarters were located.

  • This is a restored view of what this fortressed palace would

  • have looked like, when it was built in the fourth

  • century.

  • We see here all of the things I've already described:

  • the outer walls; the watchtowers;

  • the entranceway on the north; the colonnaded streets.

  • You can see the octagonal tomb rising up over there,

  • across from the Temple of Jupiter;

  • and then down here the private area, the private wing.

  • And you can see how the southern side faces the sea,

  • and there seems to have been an arcuated lintel on that side.

  • We've seen that that's grown in influence and importance since

  • it was first used in the time of Hadrian.

  • This is the Porta Aurea, or the northern gate of the

  • palace.

  • You see it in a restored view from Ward-Perkins.

  • Rectangular entranceway, lintel, window-like,

  • with grates above; niches on either side,

  • with arcuated pediments.

  • But most interestingly is the upper tier where you see a

  • series of columns on brackets that support arcades.

  • This whole idea of arcades on columns began,

  • as we know, later in antiquity, and continues to be important

  • into the late third and early fourth centuries.

  • We saw it at the Severan Forum at Leptis Magna,

  • where you can see again columns, this arcaded colonnade

  • here.

  • We saw it in residential architecture at Ostia,

  • late residential architecture.

  • Think of the House of Fortuna Annonaria where we have those

  • columns with arches above them that separate the fountain court

  • from the triclinium.

  • So I just wanted to make the point that we see it not only at

  • Diocletian's Palace, but it's very common in late

  • Roman residential and civic architecture as well.

  • This is a view of the peristyle as it looks today.

  • We are walking--we've come from the North Gate,

  • we're walking along, we're hitting the peristyle.

  • We're going to be going from the peristyle into that domed

  • area here.

  • Imagine views through the columns of the peristyle--

  • and some of those columns are still preserved,

  • as you can see them, the original columns--

  • views clearly of the Temple of Jupiter and of the Mausoleum of

  • Diocletian on the other side.

  • Arcuated lintel here inside a complete pediment.

  • So that scheme also used as the major decoration of the

  • peristyle in the Palace of Diocletian.

  • Here's a view of what the small Temple of Jupiter looks like.

  • We're looking--it originally had a statue of Jupiter;

  • now it has a statue of St.

  • John the Baptist.

  • But you can see the shape -- very much like the Curia,

  • a box-like shape.

  • Very simple, in this case not with a flat

  • coffered ceiling, but with a barrel vaulted

  • coffered ceiling.

  • But again very simple, very geometric.

  • And we can see that that barrel vault is exposed on the

  • exterior.

  • We can see the shape of the barrel vault from the outside,

  • as well as from the inside.

  • Here a view of the octagonal tomb.

  • The plan of that tomb: an octagon with colonnade

  • around it; columns on the inside;

  • radiating rectangular and curved niches.

  • But a porch, the whole idea of the

  • porch--not unlike the Pantheon, except that it's octagonal

  • instead of round--porch on the front;

  • deep porch; freestanding columns;

  • façade orientation; single staircase.

  • So this is very similar to things that we've seen earlier.

  • And two quick views, one an engraving of what the

  • mausoleum, the octagonal mausoleum would

  • have looked like, with its--you can see it's

  • faced with stone-- with its entranceway

  • façade and staircase.

  • And here you can see it is very well preserved still today,

  • in Split, where you see the surrounding columns.

  • You can see the octagonal shape and the stonework,

  • all still very well preserved, as is the interior.

  • The interior very ornate, with columns projecting from

  • the walls, supporting these projecting

  • entablatures, deeply drilled,

  • dematerialized, in the baroque manner,

  • with lots of sculptural decoration: representations of

  • victory and death-- victory over hunting and

  • victory in war-- and consequently this close

  • association, as we've seen,

  • among all of those.

  • And then scenes of both, with a portrait of Diocletian

  • and a portrait of his wife, Prisca, both of those being

  • carried in these wreaths, up to the heavens,

  • by flying cupids.

  • Here's another view, perhaps a better one that just

  • gives you some of the sense of the over-decoration,

  • over-ornamentation, the baroque effects of the

  • interior of the tomb.

  • So a very different feel to the Temple of Jupiter,

  • than to the Tomb of Diocletian himself.

  • Here he's gone all out and commissioned the most ornate

  • possible decoration, with all the baroque effects

  • that we've described, in two tiers,

  • for the interior of his mausoleum.

  • I want to show you a succession of other palaces,

  • each fairly quickly, other palaces that were built

  • during this period, that may have been--well in

  • some cases we know for sure, but in other cases we're not as

  • sure whether they were in fact palaces for the Tetrarchs.

  • This is the one that's the least certain.

  • It's a palace in the western part of the Empire that we

  • believe may have been the palace of Maximian, Augustus in the

  • West.

  • And in fact I should--yes, so let's look at that first.

  • And that dates, as you can see from your

  • Monument List, to sometime in the early fourth

  • century A.D.

  • Now if you look at the plan of this quickly,

  • you will see that it is very, very different in feel from--

  • and in plan--from the Palace of Diocletian at Split.

  • This may have something to do with the personality of

  • Maximian, or whoever the commissioner

  • was, but it may also have to do with the fact that this is not

  • on the sea but in a remote town in south-central Sicily,

  • which was much less likely to be under attack than the palace

  • at Split.

  • In fact, as you look at this, you must be reminded,

  • I'm sure, of the Villa of Hadrian at Tivoli;

  • it is very similar to that: a sprawling villa with a series

  • of very interestingly shaped rooms,

  • spread across the terrain, interacting with nature,

  • just as they did at Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli.

  • Very much a countryside villa, and I think Hadrian's Villa

  • clearly the main model.

  • As we walk through this axonometric view,

  • you see we enter on the western end.

  • At 1 we see a horseshoe shaped vestibule, with columns all

  • around this villa; just like Hadrian's Villa at

  • Tivoli, does have a lot of columns.

  • We see those here.

  • Then you make an abrupt right into this passageway here,

  • at 2(a).

  • Then into the peristyle court, with columns all the way

  • around; a pool in the center,

  • an interestingly shaped pool in the center;

  • and then a series of living spaces, to either side.

  • On 2(c) we see a transverse corridor,

  • which is very important because it links various parts of the

  • villa to one another, but it was also very decorated

  • with mosaics, many of which are preserved;

  • and I'll show you those in a moment.

  • 2(d), with its niche at the end; probably a kind of audience

  • hall; 3 is where the private

  • compartment is for the emperor, and you can see that that too

  • is fronted by a small horseshoe shaped area.

  • Then over here, at 4, we see a tri-lobed dining

  • room; the main dining room of the

  • house with the triple lobes.

  • And then down below a forecourt for that that is oval in shape.

  • So some very interestingly shaped rooms,

  • and where we see a combination of the interest in curvilinear

  • shapes, just as in Hadrian's Villa,

  • and in the use of columnar architecture;

  • references to Classical Greece.

  • Over here, at 5, we see several rooms,

  • very interestingly shaped again, that make up the baths,

  • the private baths of this particular place.

  • One can visit it still today.

  • Parts of it are very well preserved.

  • We're clearly looking at the peristyle court with the pool in

  • the center of it, right here.

  • And again it is particularly well known for its mosaics.

  • We see a long corridor here, with those mosaics.

  • They depict primarily scenes of hunting, and I show you a couple

  • of those scenes here.

  • And there's been some speculation that this was not

  • Maximian's, that it may have belonged to

  • somebody who, like those individuals who had

  • the Hunting Baths at Leptis Magna,

  • whose work it was to collect wild animals from Africa--

  • Africa is very close to Sicily--collect them from Africa

  • and send them, to supply them to amphitheaters

  • around the world.

  • But even though most of these scenes are hunting scenes,

  • the most famous mosaics from the Palace of Maximian,

  • so-called, at Piazza Armerina in Sicily,

  • are the so-called bikini girls, and I show you the bikini girls

  • right here.

  • And there's nothing like this mosaic anywhere else in Roman

  • art.

  • But you can see why they're called the bikini girls,

  • and they are involved in all kinds of athletic activities.

  • One of them has received a crown and a palm branch for her

  • excellence.

  • This one is twirling who knows what here.

  • These two are playing--passing--playing ball.

  • And over here we see a woman on the left with her five-pound

  • weights, working out.

  • So, I mean, this is probably as close as we get to--

  • one doesn't--this is very hard to interpret exactly what this

  • means and what it's all about and why it's here.

  • But perhaps we can see it as a kind of women's version to the

  • mosaic that we saw in the Baths of Caracalla,

  • with the famous athletes of the day;

  • I mean, perhaps these were famous women athletes of the

  • day, some of whom were good enough even to be awarded

  • prizes.

  • But the jury is out on exactly what these were and why they're

  • there.

  • But they're memorable, these inimitable bikini girls,

  • and very, very famous -- along with the Alexander Mosaic,

  • probably the most famous mosaic surviving from Roman antiquity.

  • Again I want to show you just very briefly,

  • to give you an inkling of a couple of more palaces.

  • One of these we know for sure is the Palace of Galerius in the

  • northern part of Greece, the Palace of Galerius.

  • Galerius, as you'll recall, was the Caesar in the eastern

  • part of the Empire, to Diocletian.

  • And I should mention--I think I neglected to mention--that

  • Diocletian did, by the way, abdicate on the 1

  • of May in 305 A.D.

  • He voluntarily stepped down, and when he voluntarily stepped

  • down, two new--the Caesars were elevated to Augusti,

  • and two new Caesars were chosen;

  • two new Caesars were chosen.

  • And Galerius became an Augustus, and he built for

  • himself this extraordinary palace in northern Greece at

  • Salonica.

  • And we can see from this plan--and I've given you the

  • date of it, to 297 to 305 A.D.; I've given you a plan of it,

  • and you should be, even though only part of it

  • survives, you should be immediately

  • reminded of palaces that we've already looked at,

  • not just today but in the past.

  • Think of Domitian's Palace on the Palatine Hill.

  • There's a hippodrome here, just as Domitian's Palace had,

  • although Domitian's Palace, it was used,

  • as you'll recall, as a sunken garden.

  • We're not sure how it was used here, but we think it may have

  • actually been used as a circus here.

  • Other rooms, including an octagonal one,

  • with alcoves, looking sort of like what

  • Rabirius designed, again for Domitian's Palace on

  • the Palatine Hill.

  • But up above we see, just as Diocletian's Palace at

  • Split, it includes a tomb.

  • Galerius has also provided for himself and his afterlife by

  • creating a round tomb.

  • You see the uppermost part in this plan from Ward-Perkins.

  • And then very interestingly, just like Diocletian's Palace

  • at Split, you can see two major,

  • what look like major roads, colonnaded roads,

  • colonnaded streets, that intersect in the center,

  • just like Diocletian's Palace.

  • And then in the center of that, where they intersect,

  • there's a four-sided arch that I'm going to show you in a

  • moment, that's still preserved.

  • Here's a plan of the Tomb of Galerius, at his villa ,

  • in this case round with radiating, rectangular alcoves.

  • You see it here.

  • It's actually very well preserved.

  • Here's the interior, showing again,

  • just as we saw in the Baths of--the octagonal room in the

  • Baths of Diocletian, use of windows in the second

  • tier, right at the base of the dome,

  • rather than an oculus.

  • And we see that also very well in plan.

  • In fact, there were two sets of them, as you can see here.

  • So they've abandoned the oculus in favor of these

  • windows at the base of the dome.

  • And then from the outside you can see that here they have used

  • concrete faced with brick for the exterior of the structure,

  • which was turned into a church--and you can see some

  • mosaics from when it was turned into a church--

  • and a minaret was also added at one other point in time.

  • Here's a spectacular view of the tomb as it looks today in

  • Salonica.

  • You can see it here; the exterior,

  • as well as its relationship along what would have been one

  • of those colonnaded streets, with the arch,

  • which is in part preserved -- the so-called Arch of Galerius.

  • You can also see from this view how similar modern Salonica is

  • to modern Athens: same country,

  • same World War, post-World War II construction;

  • mostly residential houses of five, six, seven stories,

  • white in color, with balconies,

  • as you can see.

  • Here's a view of the relationship of the tomb to the

  • arch.

  • These two colonnaded streets that intersect,

  • and at that intersection the placement of the arch.

  • The arch was four-sided so the streets could go underneath it.

  • But it was also triple-bayed, as you can see here:

  • single, central large bay; two smaller bays on either side;

  • and then the piers decorated with sculpture,

  • that give us a report on the exploits,

  • the military exploits of Galerius in the eastern part of

  • the Empire.

  • These were Galerius' wars, Galerius' victories that are

  • depicted here.

  • But we do believe that since it was one for all and all for one,

  • that it honored the Tetrarchy as a whole as well,

  • and that there were niches that were placed somewhere on this

  • arch, that would have had in them

  • representations, portraits, of each of the four

  • Tetrarchs.

  • Another view of the Arch of Galerius, at Salonica,

  • where you can see its relationship,

  • even today, to what was once the Tomb of Galerius,

  • here.

  • And a more detailed view of some of the scenes,

  • and how crowded they are, with one rectangular panel,

  • piled one on top of another, and decorative motifs in

  • between them.

  • And if we look at a detail, we see the usual scenes that we

  • see on things like this: the emperor sacrificing;

  • the emperor on horseback, trampling barbarian enemies;

  • the emperor seated, with the other Tetrarchs down

  • here, and with a host of gods and goddesses and

  • personifications.

  • So again an honoring of Galerius' own personal

  • victories, but an expansion of those to include reference also

  • to the Tetrarchy as a whole.

  • We're going to be talking next time about two men in

  • particular: a man by the name of Maxentius and Constantine the

  • Great.

  • Constantine the Great, as I've already mentioned,

  • was the son of Constantius Chlorus.

  • Maxentius was the son of Maximian.

  • So we see the generations continue, and the sons of the

  • Tetrarchs also want to be Tetrarchs themselves,

  • if not sole ruler.

  • And we'll see Maxentius and Constantine do battle against

  • one another in Tuesday's lecture.

  • But I just want to mention--we'll talk about

  • Maxentius in some detail next time,

  • especially his construction, or the beginning,

  • his beginning construction on a great basilica in Rome,

  • that Constantine eventually finished,

  • the so-called Basilica of Maxentius/Constantine,

  • or the Basilica Nova.

  • But I want to mention just in passing today a villa,

  • about a villa that Maxentius built in Rome,

  • on the Via Appia in Rome, just to round the circle and to

  • show you that some of these palaces were still--

  • they were being built in these capitals elsewhere in the world,

  • but were still being built in Rome.

  • And we know that Maxentius built a villa in the early

  • fourth century A.D., as I said on the Via Appia.

  • And there are some remains of it today.

  • I show you a general view of those here,

  • and a view, from the air, from Ward-Perkins I believe,

  • that shows you that part of that villa,

  • which is still preserved, was another one of these

  • hippodromes, the circus.

  • And in this case we know that this circus was used as a

  • circus--horse races took place here--and that it was built to

  • hold 15,000 spectators; 15,000 spectators to come out

  • onto the Via Appia to see horse races at Maxentius' villa.

  • We also know that this villa had a tomb that Maxentius

  • provided for himself, and perhaps for his family as

  • well, inside his villa.

  • So we see the same idea that we've seen in the provinces,

  • being used in Rome concurrently,

  • a tomb that is not all that well preserved,

  • but there is enough where we do believe it was a kind of mini

  • Pantheon.

  • And I show it to you here in two restored views that give you

  • a sense of what it would have looked like: that it was indeed

  • a mini Pantheon; that it was round;

  • that it had a traditional porch in the front,

  • with columns and pediments, deep porch,

  • freestanding columns, single staircase,

  • façade orientation, domed as you can see here.

  • This one looks like it reconstructs an oculus,

  • although I don't think we're absolutely sure that this

  • structure had an oculus; which seems an unlikely thing

  • to do with a tomb anyway, to have an opening in the

  • ceiling and rain coming, water coming into that tomb.

  • But leaving that particular detail aside,

  • we believe it was in the form of the Pantheon.

  • A better preserved tomb that I can show you,

  • that seems to have been quite like it,

  • is this last monument that I'm showing you today,

  • the Tor de'Schiavi, a restored view from

  • Ward-Perkins, that was a tomb that was put up

  • in around A.D.

  • 300 on one of Rome's other major streets,

  • the Via Praenestina, as I've indicated on the

  • Monument List.

  • And once again we see this whole idea of the mini Pantheon,

  • being used not as a temple to all the gods,

  • but as a tomb; as a tomb, a round structure

  • with a traditional porch on the front,

  • a rectangular pediment, deep porch,

  • freestanding columns in that porch,

  • single staircase façade, emphasis here.

  • You also see, interestingly enough,

  • that this one we know did not have an oculus,

  • and you can see that they have put windows at the base to

  • provide light.

  • These are not the usual windows that we've seen,

  • that were arcuated at the top, but rather round windows,

  • sort of portholes, into this particular tomb.

  • Up above you see the plan, as in Ward-Perkins,

  • round with radiating, alternating curved and

  • rectangular alcoves.

  • There is some controversy about the porch, whether it had a

  • regular, complete, triangular pediment,

  • or whether it had an arcuated lintel.

  • We're not sure.

  • Various scholars have put forward one view or the other.

  • But the last thought that I want to leave you with is that

  • it's very interesting to see these mini Pantheons being used

  • as tombs in late antiquity, by the Tetrarchs and by others,

  • and if not mini Pantheons, octagonal structures that also

  • look back to the past.

  • And I think that's important, and it's a nice note to end on,

  • because it reminds us that when Diocletian and the other

  • Tetrarchs come into Rome, after the chaos of the third

  • century A.D., and want to establish

  • stability--once again, re-establish stability--what do

  • they do?

  • They look to the past.

  • They build buildings in the Roman Forum,

  • but they also look to the great architecture of their earlier

  • counterparts, of Caesar--of the great leaders

  • of the Roman past-- Caesar, Augustus, Hadrian.

  • They look to them, they look to their buildings,

  • and they use their buildings as models to indicate that they are

  • in a line from those earlier emperors,

  • that they're just as much in control,

  • that they have brought stability back to Rome,

  • and also to the Empire as a whole, which is why we see them

  • building not just in Rome but also around the Empire,

  • as they govern from the fringes, as well as they govern

  • from the city of Rome.

  • Thank you all.

  • Have a good day.

Prof: Good morning everybody.

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B1 中級 美國腔

22.羅馬重現:四皇制文藝復興 (22. Rome Redux: The Tetrarchic Renaissance)

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    Sofi 發佈於 2021 年 01 月 14 日
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