Let's answer some questions from the internet.

讓我們來回答一些來自互聯網的問題。

This is Caveman Support.

這裡是野人支援中心。

At Sean Spain asks, How did cavemen hunt with clubs?

肖恩-西班牙問：穴居人是如何用棍棒打獵的？

Animals are really fast.

動物跑得真快

We often think of cavemen as having clubs.

我們通常認為穴居人有棍棒。

They probably use clubs.

他們可能用棍子。

But we know that by the time humans were moving into Ice Age Europe that they had really long spears, like six or seven feet tall.

但我們知道，當人類進入冰河時期的歐洲時，他們已經有了非常長的矛，有六七英尺高。

And we know sometimes they were tipping those spears with stone like this to make lethal, sharp, stabbing spears.

我們知道，有時他們會用這樣的石頭把矛尖削尖，製成致命、鋒利、帶刺的矛。

Early modern humans had real long-range projectile weaponry like bow and arrow and in some places spear throwers.

早期現代人擁有真正的遠程射程武器，如弓箭，有些地方還有投矛器。

The spear has a nock on the other end which fits into that hook.

矛的另一端有一個鉤，可以套在鉤上。

And so the spear would just be held parallel to the spear thrower.

這樣，矛就會與投矛者平行。

And then when you throw it, it allows you to propel the spear over a distance of about 40 meters or about 120 feet.

然後，當你把它扔出去時，它可以把矛推進大約 40 米或 120 英尺的距離。

At Karen Ryden asks, I did 23 and me.

在凱倫-雷登的要求下，我做了 "23 和我"。

I had 89% of the Neanderthal variant of all in their system.

在他們的系統中，我有 89% 的尼安德特人變種。

What does that mean?

這是什麼意思？

You have more Neanderthal genes than 89% of the people who've submitted their DNA.

你的尼安德特人基因比89%提交DNA的人還多。

Now most of us only have a small proportion of Neanderthal genes.

現在，我們大多數人只有一小部分尼安德特人的基因。

Only about 1 to 4%.

只有大約 1%到 4%。

Early members of our species migrated out of Africa.

我們人類的早期成員遷徙出非洲。

They met and sometimes interbred with the Neanderthals.

他們遇到了尼安德特人，有時還與尼安德特人雜交。

So if you have any ancestry from Europe or from Asia, you probably have got some Neanderthal genes.

是以，如果你的祖先來自歐洲或亞洲，你很可能帶有一些尼安德特人的基因。

We have complete genomes of several Neanderthals.

我們有幾個尼安德特人的完整基因組。

We're able to know, for instance, that some Neanderthals had red hair.

例如，我們可以知道一些尼安德特人有紅頭髮。

So you might think, hey, if I have red hair, maybe I got that from Neanderthals.

所以你可能會想，嘿，如果我有紅頭髮，也許是從尼安德特人那裡遺傳來的。

But it actually turns out that it is a different gene that causes the red hair in Neanderthals.

但實際上，尼安德特人的紅髮是由另一種基因引起的。

So not all redheads are descended from Neanderthals.

是以，並非所有紅髮人都是尼安德特人的後裔。

But because most redheads are European, most redheads have got some Neanderthal genes in them.

但由於大多數紅頭髮的人都是歐洲人，所以大多數紅頭髮的人身上都有一些尼安德特人的基因。

You think Ice Age is historically accurate?

你認為《冰河世紀》在歷史上是準確的嗎？

Well, it actually is pretty, pretty accurate.

事實上，它非常非常準確。

You see in this clip here some animals moving past these gigantic thick ice sheets.

在這個片段中，你可以看到一些動物從這些巨大的厚冰原上走過。

Most of the animals that are depicted in Ice Age, giant ground sloths, woolly mammoths, saber-toothed cats, were actually around here in North America.

冰河世紀》中描述的大多數動物，如巨型地懶、長毛猛獁象、劍齒虎等，其實都曾在北美出現過。

In places, the ice sheets were as much as two and a half miles thick.

有的地方，冰層厚達兩英里半。

And I love the way that they depict the barren land and just dirt around the glaciers.

我喜歡他們描繪貧瘠土地和冰川周圍泥土的方式。

When you have ice sheets like that, you get deserts forming right up against them because the ice sheets suck all the moisture out of the atmosphere and create snow over the ice sheets.

當有這樣的冰原時，沙漠就會在冰原上形成，因為冰原會吸走大氣中的水分，在冰原上形成積雪。

I think that the humans that they depict are also pretty accurate.

我認為它們所描繪的人類也非常準確。

They're shown wearing tailored clothing.

他們穿著剪裁合體的服裝。

We find bone needles in the archaeological record beginning about 30,000 years ago.

我們在大約 3 萬年前的考古記錄中發現了骨針。

And that indicates people were able to stitch together clothing.

這表明人們能夠縫製衣服。

But there are a couple things that are inaccurate.

但有幾處是不準確的。

You wouldn't see animals up near the ice sheets.

在冰原附近是看不到動物的。

Animals live where their plants grow.

動物生活在植物生長的地方。

And the other thing is there are no saber-toothed squirrels in the fossil record.

另外，化石記錄中並沒有劍齒松鼠。

At AndyDoodle56 asks, OK, paleoanthropology nerds, what species is the Geico caveman anyway?

AndyDoodle56 問：古人類學的書呆子們，Geico 穴居人到底是什麼物種？

Well, let's see.

讓我想想

Looking at the brow ridge morphology and the really big nose and the facial architecture, it looks a lot like a Neanderthal.

從眉脊形態、大鼻子和麵部結構來看，它很像尼安德特人。

At Shrestha Alishna asks, What happened to Neanderthals?

克里斯塔-阿里什納問道："尼安德特人怎麼了？

Well, frankly, I think we did them in.

老實說，我覺得是我們害了他們。

Modern humans moved into their territory, out-competed them, and out-reproduced them.

現代人類進入了他們的領地，超越了他們，並繁衍了他們。

They were short and stocky and very muscular.

他們個子矮小，身材魁梧，肌肉發達。

They also had short limbs, short arms and short legs.

他們的四肢也很短，胳膊短，腿也短。

So that reduced the surface area by which they lost heat.

這樣就減少了它們散失熱量的表面積。

And they had kind of a strange architecture of the nose and face, which also helped them deal with cold air that they were breathing.

它們的鼻子和臉部結構很奇特，這也有助於它們呼吸冷空氣。

Those bodies were really good at producing heat, but that's not good for conserving energy.

這些身體非常善於產生熱量，但這不利於節約能源。

They had very costly bodies.

他們的身體非常昂貴。

They were costly to move, costly to feed, costly to keep warm.

他們搬家費錢、吃飯費錢、取暖費錢。

And so they didn't have a lot of room left over in their energy budgets to devote to reproducing.

是以，它們的能量預算中沒有太多剩餘空間用於繁殖。

They had a lot of competition in the form of large, fierce carnivores.

它們的競爭對手是大型凶猛食肉動物。

Things like cave lions, cave hyenas, saber-toothed cats, wolves, grizzly bears.

比如洞獅、洞鬣狗、劍齒虎、狼、灰熊。

And so probably for much of their history in Europe, Neanderthals were just hanging on by a thread.

是以，尼安德特人在歐洲的大部分歷史時期，可能都是苟延殘喘。

At Roxy Notlalande asks, Hey, where did early humans live?

羅克茜-諾特蘭德問：嘿，早期人類住在哪裡？

If you look at the earliest stages of human evolution, the first four million years is entirely here in Africa, where we've got little ape men, the Australopiths.

如果你看一下人類進化的最初階段，最初的400萬年完全是在非洲，在那裡我們有了小猿人，澳洲猿人。

We find them here in the Rift Valley, in East Africa, in countries like Kenya, Tanzania, Ethiopia.

我們在東非大裂谷的肯亞、坦尚尼亞、衣索匹亞等國發現了它們。

And we find them in Southern Africa in cave systems outside of Johannesburg.

我們在南部非洲約翰內斯堡外的洞穴系統中發現了它們。

By about two and a half million years, members of our own genus, like Homo habilis, start to crop up.

到了大約 250 萬年前，我們同屬的人，如 "哈比人"（Homo habilis）開始出現。

And that includes Homo erectus.

這其中也包括直立人。

And Homo erectus is the first one to actually leave Africa.

而直立人是第一個真正離開非洲的人。

We pick up Homo erectus initially in the Republic of Georgia, and then eventually in Indonesia.

我們最初在格魯吉亞共和國發現直立人，最後在印度尼西亞發現了直立人。

And you might wonder, how did Homo erectus get to Indonesia?

你可能會問，直立人是怎麼來到印度尼西亞的？

Those are islands out there.

這些都是外面的島嶼。

Keep in mind, this is during the ice ages.

請記住，這是在冰河時期。

And during glacial intervals, sea levels drop.

而在冰川期，海平面會下降。

And in places where there's a shallow sea, the seafloor becomes exposed, and Indonesia just becomes a peninsula connected to the southern part of Asia.

在一些淺海地區，海底裸露出來，印度尼西亞就變成了一個與亞洲南部相連的半島。

And so Homo erectus could walk out to those islands.

是以直立人可以走到那些島嶼上去。

Meanwhile, a new species emerges.

與此同時，一個新物種出現了。

It comes out of Homo erectus.

它來自直立人。

Most of us would call it Homo heidelbergensis.

我們大多數人會稱之為海德堡智人。

It looks like this guy right here.

看起來就像這個人

The very Homo erectus looking with big brow ridges and a massive face.

直立人長得非常像直立人，有很大的眉脊和巨大的臉。

These guys up here in Europe gives rise to the Neanderthals.

歐洲的這些傢伙產生了尼安德特人。

And in Africa, they evolve into our own species, Homo sapiens, about 300,000 years ago.

大約 30 萬年前，他們在非洲進化成了我們自己的物種--智人。

And by about 70,000 years ago, they started expanding out of Africa.

到了大約 7 萬年前，他們開始向非洲以外擴張。

And they probably encountered populations of Homo erectus, which they knocked off.

他們很可能遇到了直立人，並將其擊退。

And by 40,000 years ago, they are moving into Europe and starting to encounter the Neanderthals, who they knock off.

到了 4 萬年前，他們開始進入歐洲，並開始遇到尼安德特人，他們把尼安德特人趕走了。

And by about 20,000 years, they're all the way up here in eastern Siberia.

到了大約兩萬年前，他們已經來到了西伯利亞東部。

And they cross the Bering Land Bridge, where they become the Native Americans that we know today.

他們穿過白令陸橋，成為我們今天所熟知的美洲原住民。

At Reality Seeker asks, did cavemen have a sense of humor?

Reality Seeker 提問：穴居人有幽默感嗎？

They probably did have a sense of humor.

他們可能確實有幽默感。

This is a depiction of an ibex, which is a kind of a wild goat.

這是對山羊的描繪，山羊是野山羊的一種。

You know, you can see its head here and its body and its legs.

你可以看到它的頭，身體和腿。

And it's got something coming out of its rear end here, which maybe is the first poop joke.

這裡有東西從它的屁股裡出來，也許這就是第一個大便笑話。

At imrwkali asks, how did humans survive the ice age?

imrwkali 問：人類是如何在冰河時期生存下來的？

Gosh, I can hardly bear to be outside for more than five minutes when the temperature drops below zero degrees Celsius.

天哪，當氣溫降到攝氏零度以下時，我幾乎無法忍受在室外呆超過五分鐘。

Neanderthals had fire, sure.

尼安德特人當然有火。

But these early modern humans in Europe probably had better pyrotechnology.

但歐洲的這些早期現代人可能擁有更好的煙火技術。

Parts which channeled the airflow so they could really stoke the fire.

這些部件可以引導氣流，使它們能夠真正煽風點火。

When the ice ages really ramped up, they stayed put and they just hunkered down and dealt with it.

當冰河時期真正到來時，它們就留在原地，蜷縮起來應對冰河時期。

At A Hasty Retweet asks, you know how they discovered those fossils of three feet tall early humans in Indonesia?

A Hasty Retweet 問：你知道他們是如何在印度尼西亞發現三英尺高的早期人類化石的嗎？

They called them hobbits as a nickname, which is really cool, but they really missed an opportunity to call them Neander-shorts.

他們叫霍比特人作為暱稱，這真的很酷，但他們真的錯過了一個叫他們 "尼安德短褲 "的機會。

I'm totally going to steal that one because that's at the intersection of dad jokes and paleoanthropology.

我完全要把這句話盜用過來，因為它是爸爸笑話和古人類學的交匯點。

The hobbits are a species of early human, and they come from a little island in Indonesia called Flores Island.

霍比特人是早期人類的一種，他們來自印度尼西亞一個叫弗洛裡斯島的小島。

So the species is called Homo floresiensis.

是以，這個物種被稱為 "弗洛里斯人"。

These guys are the descendants of Homo erectus.

這些傢伙是直立人的後代。

Homo erectus got out onto Flores Island, got trapped there.

直立人逃到了弗洛裡斯島，被困在那裡。

When you get trapped on an island, if you're a small bodied mammal, like a small rodent or something, you tend to get larger.

當你被困在一個小島上時，如果你是一種體型較小的哺乳動物，比如小齧齒動物之類的，你就會變得越來越大。

If you're a larger bodied mammal, you tend to get smaller, which is called island dwarfism.

如果你是體型較大的哺乳動物，你的體型往往會變小，這就是所謂的島嶼侏儒症。

And so these little hobbits find themselves living in a backdrop of giant rats and tiny dwarf elephants called stegadon and being hunted by things like Komodo dragons.

於是，這些小哈比人發現自己生活在巨型老鼠和被稱作 "stegadon "的矮小大象的背景下，並遭到科莫多龍等動物的獵殺。

At Caleb Llama asks, honest question, did cavemen have pets?

卡萊布-拉瑪問了一個誠實的問題：穴居人有寵物嗎？

The only domesticated animal that we have during the Stone Age is the dog.

石器時代唯一馴化的動物是狗。

The earliest undisputed dogs in the fossil record come from a site in Germany called Bonn Oberkassel, where there is a human buried with a dog.

化石記錄中最早的無可爭議的狗來自德國一個名為波昂-奧伯卡塞爾的遺址，那裡有一個人和一隻狗埋在一起。

They're used to help with hunting.

它們用來幫助打獵。

They're used to help fend off carnivores.

它們被用來幫助抵禦食肉動物。

We don't start to see things like cattle or goats until humans settle down and start engaging in agriculture after about 10,000 years ago.

直到大約 1 萬年前，人類定居下來並開始從事農業生產，我們才開始看到牛或山羊等動物。

At worldofpaleoanth asks, how did the A. afarensis specimen dubbed Lucy get her name?

Worldofpaleoanth 問：被稱為露西（Lucy）的 A. afarensis 標本的名字是怎麼來的？

Lucy is a 3.2 million year old partial skeleton from Ethiopia that represents the species Australopithecus afarensis, and she's one of the most famous fossils out there.

露西是來自衣索匹亞的一具距今 320 萬年前的部分骨骼，代表了南猿這一物種，也是最著名的化石之一。

She was found in 1974.

她於 1974 年被發現。

The team that found her was playing the Beatles song Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds incessantly in camp, and they named Lucy in honor of that song.

發現她的小組在營地裡不停地播放披頭士的歌曲《天空中的露西與鑽石》（Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds），他們以這首歌命名露西。

At Fifo Kazweedie asks, things I'm too tired to Google.

在 Fifo，Kazweedie 問到："我太累了，沒時間谷歌。

When did hominins start having hair that grows indefinitely long?

類人從什麼時候開始有可以無限長的毛髮？

In a quadruped, most of the sunshine is falling on their back, and the hair protects their skin.

對於四足動物來說，大部分陽光都落在它們的背部，而毛髮可以保護它們的皮膚。

They don't have as much hair in the belly because it's shady down there.

它們腹部的毛髮沒那麼多，因為下面很陰暗。

For a biped, most of the solar radiation is falling on the top of the head, and the shoulders, and the upper part of the back.

對於兩足動物來說，大部分太陽輻射都落在頭頂、肩膀和背部上半部分。

So Homo erectus probably retained hair on the top of the head to block out solar radiation and evolved the capacity to grow it longer to protect the head, shoulders, and the upper part of the back from sunburn.

是以，直立人很可能保留了頭頂的毛髮，以阻擋太陽輻射，並進化出更長的毛髮，以保護頭部、肩部和背部上半部分不被晒傷。

At bzieg73 asks, so like, what did cavemen do about dental hygiene?

bzieg73 問：那麼，穴居人是如何注意牙齒衛生的呢？

Well, unfortunately, probably not much.

不幸的是，可能不多。

We do have some fossils which denote habitual use of toothpicks, where they've used toothpicks so much that they've actually created little grooves in their teeth.

我們確實有一些化石表明他們有使用牙籤的習慣，他們使用牙籤的次數非常多，以至於在牙齒上形成了一些小凹槽。

But before that, we've got guys like this guy from Africa.

但在此之前，我們已經有了像這個來自非洲的傢伙一樣的人。

He's about 250,000 years old.

他大約有 25 萬年的歷史。

He's a representative of Homo heidelbergensis, and he's got absolutely rotten teeth with huge cavities, probably because he was eating a lot of honey.

他是海德堡智人的代表，他的牙齒完全爛掉了，有很大的蛀牙，可能是因為他吃了很多蜂蜜。

He's got a hole in the side of his head here, which is probably from an infection from bacteria entering the bloodstream from these cavities and circulating around and setting up an infection in the side of his skull, and this is probably what killed him.

他的頭部側面有一個洞，很可能是細菌從這些空腔進入血液，在他的頭骨側面循環感染造成的，這很可能就是他的死因。

At twinz25464257 asks, what's your favorite ancient hominid, my paleoanthropology friends?

古人類學的朋友們，你們最喜歡哪種古人類？

Oh, that's like asking me to pick my favorite child.

哦，這就好比讓我選出我最喜歡的孩子。

I will say that these guys are one of my favorites, a 250,000 year old species called Homo naledi.

我想說的是，這些傢伙是我的最愛之一，它們是距今 25 萬年前的物種，名叫納勒迪智人（Homo naledi）。

I was a member of a team that found them in caves in South Africa, down a chute, which is about 40 feet long and gets down to about seven inches wide, way too small for me to get in there.

我是一個小組的成員，他們在南非的一個洞穴裡發現了它們，順著一條長約 40 英尺、寬約 7 英寸的滑道，我根本進不去。

We actually needed an entire crew of small bodied excavators to get down into this chamber.

實際上，我們需要一整組小型挖掘機才能進入這個密室。

They have an ape-sized brain.

它們有猿猴大小的大腦。

They have very primitive morphology in the face.

它們的面部形態非常原始。

They're probably one of the most primitive members of our genus, but very late in time.

它們可能是我們屬中最原始的成員之一，但在時間上卻非常晚。

There are relic species that just hung on without changing very much through time until we find them in the caves of South Africa.

在南非的洞穴中，我們發現了一些遺存物種，它們在時間的流逝中沒有發生太大的變化。

At blueslicker asks, what is the missing link between ape and man?

在 blueslicker 提問中，猿與人之間缺失的環節是什麼？

Well, as a paleoanthropologist, I gotta tell you, we hate the term missing link.

作為古人類學家，我得告訴你，我們討厭 "缺失環節 "這個詞。

And that kind of thinking leads to conceptions of a march of progress where evolution is just a stepwise series of progressive changes through time.

這種思維導致了一種進步的概念，即進化只是隨著時間的推移逐步發生的一系列漸進變化。

But the human family tree was very, very bushy.

但人類的家譜非常非常繁茂。

There were lots of species.

有很多物種。

We recognize anywhere from 28 to 30 of them.

我們認識其中的 28 到 30 個。

At roughly 6 million years ago, our lineage began to diverge from the lineage that leads to living chimpanzees and bonobos.

大約 600 萬年前，我們的血統開始與黑猩猩和倭黑猩猩的血統分化。

Our earliest ancestors would look like a chimpanzee, like this chimp skull here.

我們最早的祖先看起來就像黑猩猩，就像這個黑猩猩頭骨。

They had very snouty faces like a chimpanzee, but you'd be impressed by the fact that they're walking on two legs and that their canine teeth, this big fang here was actually a little bit smaller.

它們長著像黑猩猩一樣的鼻孔朝天的臉，但它們用兩條腿走路的事實會給你留下深刻印象，它們的犬齒，這裡的大獠牙實際上要小一點。

But other than that, they're very chimpanzee-like.

但除此之外，它們非常像黑猩猩。

At shrub plays asks, if Gigantopithecus existed, why can't Bigfoot?

灌木劇問，如果巨型人猿存在，為什麼大腳怪就不存在呢？

Why not indeed?

為什麼不呢？

Gigantopithecus was a huge ape.

巨猿是一種巨大的猿類。

If it was standing on its hind legs, it was probably about eight feet tall, maybe twice the size of a gorilla with a huge head and huge teeth.

如果它是用後腿站立的話，大概有八英尺高，可能是大猩猩的兩倍大，頭很大，牙齒也很大。

They probably lived on bamboo like panda bears.

它們可能像熊貓一樣以竹子為生。

And they lived in Asia up until about a half million years ago.

它們生活在亞洲，直到大約 50 萬年前。

And some people have thought that maybe the Yeti in the Himalayas or Bigfoot in North America are just relic populations of Gigantopithecus.

有些人認為，喜馬拉雅山上的雪人或北美的大腳怪可能只是巨型始祖鳥的遺蹟。

That would require that Gigantopithecus crossed the Bering Sea into North America without leaving any kind of fossil record.

這就需要巨型始祖鳥穿越白令海進入北美洲，而沒有留下任何化石記錄。

But maybe that happened.

但也許就是這樣。

At Patrick's son asks, bro, when did language start?

帕特里克的兒子問：兄弟，語言是什麼時候開始的？

If we look at Neanderthals, they have brains which were every bit as big as ours.

如果我們看看尼安德特人，他們的大腦和我們一樣大。

And they seem to have the neural structures that one would need to produce language.

它們似乎擁有產生語言所需的神經結構。

We can tell from holes for nerves in the base of the skull that they had very good motor control of their tongues.

我們可以從顱底的神經孔中看出，他們對舌頭的運動控制能力非常強。

Neanderthals had a very long, low brain case and a more projecting face.

尼安德特人的腦殼很長、很低，臉部更加突出。

And that results in a flatter base of the skull.

這樣一來，顱底就會更加平坦。

So Neanderthals probably could only produce one or two vowel sounds.

是以，尼安德特人可能只能發出一兩個元音。

In our species, Homo sapiens, our face is tucked up more under the brain case.

在我們智人這個物種中，我們的臉更多地收在腦殼下面。

And we have a more globular cranial vault.

而我們的顱頂則更加球形。

And that creates a bend in the base of the brain case.

這就造成了腦殼底部的彎曲。

We have flexion here.

這裡有彎曲。

This flexion gives us a resonating space that allows us to make the full range of vowel sounds.

這種彎曲為我們提供了共鳴空間，使我們能夠發出各種元音。

Keep in mind that even monkeys and apes use verbal communication.

請記住，即使是猴子和猿猴也會使用語言交流。

There are things like pant hoots and chimpanzees, which mean something to their group members.

有些東西，比如喘氣聲和黑猩猩，對它們的群體成員來說是有意義的。

At seven light bringers asks, what the did cavemen do for fun?

七點鐘，"穴居人 "問道："穴居人以什麼為樂？

Well, probably not a lot to tell you the truth.