Welcome.

歡迎光臨

Thanks for joining me.

感謝您的參與。

In this video, I will be discussing semantics, which has to do with the study of meaning in terms of words, phrases, and sentences.

在本視頻中，我將討論語義學，這與研究單詞、短語和句子的意義有關。

Specifically in this video, I'll be talking about lexical semantics, which has to do with the study of words. Now, in this video, I'll be covering several concepts, including lexical relations, componential analysis, and prototype theory.

具體來說，在本視頻中，我將談論詞彙語義學，這與詞彙研究有關。在本視頻中，我將介紹幾個概念，包括詞彙關係、成分分析和原型理論。

First, let's clarify the scope of denotational meaning, rather than connotational meaning, meaning that semantics is focused on what something means, rather than how it is used in context.

首先，讓我們澄清一下指稱意義的範圍，而不是內涵意義，也就是說，語義學關注的是事物的含義，而不是它在語境中是如何使用的。

That is the domain of pragmatics. Now, for example, consider this image.

這就是語用學的範疇。例如，請看這幅圖。

Is this a chair?

這是一把椅子嗎？

What about this?

這個怎麼樣？

Or this?

還是這個？

There's no easy answer to those questions, and hopefully by the end of this video, you will see that it largely depends on the person being asked that question.

這些問題沒有簡單的答案，希望在本視頻結束時，您能明白這主要取決於被問到這個問題的人。

So, first, let's talk about lexical relations. Now, lexical relations has to do with the meanings of words in relationship to one another, and there are several of these that we'll talk about.

首先，我們來談談詞性關係。現在，詞性關係與詞義之間的關係有關，我們將討論其中的幾個詞性關係。

First, let's talk about synonymy.

首先，我們來談談同義詞。

Synonyms are words with similar meanings, such as big and large, small and little, doctor and physician.

同義詞是指意思相近的詞，如大和大、小和小、醫生和醫師。

Each pair there has very similar meanings.

其中每一對的含義都非常相似。

So, they might be different words, but they have very similar meanings.

是以，它們可能是不同的詞，但意思卻非常相似。

Those are synonyms. Now, we could also talk about antonyms, which is the opposite, because antonyms are words that have opposite meanings.

這些都是同義詞。現在，我們還可以談談反義詞，也就是相反的意思，因為反義詞是指意思相反的詞。

There's actually two types of antonyms.

反義詞實際上有兩種。

There's gradable antonymy and non-gradable antonymy.

有可分級的反義詞和不可分級的反義詞。

Gradable antonyms are those in which there's a kind of graded difference.

可分級反義詞是指存在某種分級差異的反義詞。

It's something that you could imagine on a continuum or a spectrum.

你可以把它想象成一個連續體或光譜。

For example, something could be kind of wide and kind of narrow.

例如，某樣東西可能有點寬，也可能有點窄。

It's unclear where one stops and the other begins.

現在還不清楚兩者的界限在哪裡。

Similarly, with kind of short and kind of tall, it's unclear where one stops and the other begins.

同樣，"有點矮 "和 "有點高 "也不清楚哪裡是終點，哪裡是起點。

So, non-gradable antonyms are different.

是以，不可升級的反義詞是不同的。

They are either one or the other, and they fail the kind of test.

它們要麼是其中一種，要麼是另一種，都沒有通過測試。

So, you can either be alive or dead.

所以，你要麼活著，要麼死了。

You can't really say something is kind of alive or kind of dead, never mind all the zombies that you've seen in movies.

你不能說某種東西是活的，也不能說某種東西是死的，更不用說你在電影裡看到的那些殭屍了。

If you think about the meaning of something as a living being, it's either alive or it's dead.

如果你把某樣東西看作一個生命體，那麼它要麼是活的，要麼是死的。

Similarly, somebody could either be married or unmarried.

同樣，有人可能已婚，也可能未婚。

You're either one or the other.

你要麼是其中一個，要麼是另一個。

There is no kind of in-between.

沒有什麼中間地帶。

It's not a graded category.

這不是一個分級類別。

Those are non-gradable antonyms. Next, we can talk about hyponymy, and hyponymy is when the meaning of one form is actually included in the meaning of a larger other form.

這些都是不可升級的反義詞。接下來，我們可以談談同義詞，同義詞是指一種形式的意義實際上包含在另一種更大的形式的意義中。

So, for example, a daisy is a hyponym of flower.

是以，舉例來說，雛菊是花的假名。

A carrot is a hyponym of vegetable.

胡蘿蔔是蔬菜的同義詞。

Aspen is a hyponym of tree.

Aspen 是樹的下位詞。

A cat is a hyponym of a vomit maker.

貓是嘔吐製造者的假名。

These are all examples of the meaning of one word being included in the meaning of a larger category. Now, we can next talk about homophony, and homophony are forms that sound the exact same, and that's what the word means, homo as in same and phone, same sound, but they are actually spelled differently, and they have very unrelated meanings.

這些都是一個詞的意義被包含在一個更大範疇的意義中的例子。接下來，我們可以談談同音詞，同音詞是指聽起來完全相同的形式，這也是這個詞的意思，homo 是指 same，phone 是指相同的聲音，但實際上它們的拼寫是不同的，而且它們的含義也非常不相關。

So, we could talk about sea.

所以，我們可以談談大海。

The sea is in the body of water, and we could talk about sea as in the action that you perform with the eyes to look.

海在水體中，我們可以把海說成是你用眼睛去看的動作。

We could also talk about bear as in being naked, and we could talk about bear as in the creature that you don't want to encounter in the woods.

我們還可以把熊說成是赤身裸體的熊，也可以把熊說成是你在森林裡最不想遇到的生物。

These are homophones.

這些都是同音字。

These are often confused with homonyms, so that means same name, homonym.

這些地名經常與同形異義詞混淆，所以意思是同名同姓。

So, homonyms are forms that sound the same, and they are spelled the same, but they have unrelated meanings.

是以，同音異義詞是指發音相同、拼寫相同，但含義卻不相關的形式。

So, for example, consider the word bank as in the side of a river, and bank as in a financial institution.

是以，舉例來說，可以把 bank 這個詞理解為河邊，也可以把 bank 理解為金融機構。

They're spelled the same, they sound the same, but they have very unrelated meanings.

它們拼寫相同，聽起來也一樣，但含義卻大相徑庭。

We could also talk about a pen as in a writing instrument, and a pen as in a small enclosed space where we might keep livestock or unruly children.

我們還可以把 "筆 "說成是書寫工具，把 "筆 "說成是飼養牲畜或頑皮孩子的封閉小空間。

In both of those examples, again, we're talking about forms that are the exact same.

在這兩個例子中，我們說的都是完全相同的形式。

They're spelled the same, they sound the same, but unrelated meanings. Now, we could talk about polysemy, and polysemy has to do with words that are the same.

它們拼寫相同，發音相同，但意思卻不相關。現在，我們可以討論多義詞，多義詞與相同的詞有關。

They're spelled the same, they sound the same, but they have related meanings, often based on metaphor.

它們拼寫相同，聽起來也一樣，但卻有相關的含義，通常基於隱喻。

So, for example, consider the foot as in an anatomical part, but we could also talk about the foot of a table, or the foot of a mountain.

是以，舉例來說，我們可以把腳看作是一個解剖部位，但我們也可以談論桌子的腳或山腳。

So, using the metaphor here of the anatomical part, that's sort of the source for us to understand that it's the part of the table that's holding the rest of the table up, or the same thing with a mountain.

是以，用解剖學上的部分來做比喻，我們就可以理解為是桌子的一部分支撐著桌子的其他部分，或者說是山的一部分支撐著桌子的其他部分。

Similarly, we could talk about a mole as in the mammal that burrows underground, spends most of its life in the subterranean environment, and we could also talk about a mole as in a spy, or somebody who's been planted for the purpose of espionage, that's sort of using a metaphorical relationship with the animal because it is a mole as in a human being.

同樣，我們可以把 "鼴鼠 "說成是在地下鑽洞的哺乳動物，它的大部分時間都在地下環境中度過，我們也可以把 "鼴鼠 "說成是間諜，或者是為了間諜目的而被安插在地下的人。

A spy is perceived as being hidden or unseen, that's polysemy, the poly meaning many, and seem meaning meaning, so many meanings. Next, we could talk about metonymy, and metonymy is really interesting because it's a big category, but it's really the idea that you're referring to one thing based on some close relationship to another thing, and this could be in terms of association, like for example when a server says table 14 needs water, of course table 14 doesn't need anything, it's an inanimate object, but it is used to refer to the customer who is seated at that table, they're the ones who need water, so it's based on association.

間諜被認為是隱藏的或看不見的，這就是多義詞，poly 的意思是很多，seem 的意思是意思，有很多意思。接下來，我們可以談談隱喻，隱喻真的很有趣，因為它是一個很大的範疇，但它實際上是指你根據與另一個事物的某種密切關係來指稱一個事物，這可以是聯想方面的，比如當服務員說 14 號桌要水時，14 號桌當然不需要任何東西，它是一個無生命的物體，但它被用來指稱坐在那張桌子上的顧客，他們才是需要水的人，所以它是基於聯想的。

But we could also talk about metonymy in terms of referring to a container to talk about the contents, like when for example I say I ate the whole bag, I didn't literally eat the bag, if I did I wouldn't be making this video, I would be in the hospital, so I'm just referring to bag to talk about the container, the chips that are inside of it for example.

不過，我們也可以用 "隱喻 "來指代容器，比如我說我吃掉了整個袋子，但我並沒有真的吃掉袋子，如果我真的吃掉了，我就不會拍這個視頻了，我早就進醫院了，所以我只是用 "袋子 "來指代容器，比如裡面的薯片。

But we could also talk about metonymy in terms of a part-whole relationship, where for example a captain might say on a boat, all hands on deck, that means that the people themselves, they have to go up and do work, they have to be on deck, but we're just picking out one salient feature of the human being, the hand, to refer to the whole body.

但我們也可以從部分與整體的關係來談論隱喻，例如，船長可能會說，在一艘船上，所有的人都在甲板上，這意味著人本身，他們必須上去工作，他們必須在甲板上，但我們只是挑出人的一個突出特徵--手，來指代整個身體。

So incidentally, that last example of part-whole relationship is often called synecdoche

順便提一下，最後一個部分與整體關係的例子通常被稱為 "同義反復"（synecdoche）。