all of humanity once spoke a single language

所有人類曾有過共同的語言

until they suddenly split into many groups

一直到他們突然分裂成許多不同的語言個體

unable to understand each other.

再也無法如同以往理解彼此

We don't really know if such an original language ever existed,

我們無法確知人類是否曾有過共同的語言

but we do know that the thousands of languages existing today

但我們知道現今世上成千的語言

can be traced back to a much smaller number.

可追溯至更小規模的語系

So how did we end up with so many?

然而，為何現今存在著如此多種語言呢？

In the early days of human migration,

在人類遷徙早期

the world was much less populated.

世界人口並未如現今般地龐大

Groups of people that shared a single language and culture

不過有著同樣語言與文化的群體

often split into smaller tribes,

往往分裂成數個小型部落

going separate ways in search of fresh game and fertile land.

分道揚鑣以找尋新的獵物與肥沃的土地

As they migrated and settled in new places,

當他們遷徙並在定居在新處所時

they became isolated from one another

同時也和原先的部落疏遠了

and developed in different ways.

並漸漸地發展出自有的特色

Centuries of living in different conditions,

經歷幾世紀不同的居住型態

eating different food

由於不同的飲食習慣

and encountering different neighbors

和不同的鄰近區域的人們互動

turned similar dialects with varied pronunciation and vocabulary

原先僅在發音與字彙上有些許差異的方言

into radically different languages,

便發展成不同的語言

continuing to divide as populations grew and spread out further.

人口更進一步地成長，向外擴展

Like genealogists, modern linguists try to map this process

從系譜來看，現代語言學家試著將語言的發展情況描繪出來

by tracing multiple languages back as far as they can

盡可能地追溯至更久遠以前

to their common ancestor, or protolanguage.

語言共同的起源或是語言的原型

A group of all languages related in this way is called a language family,

有著共同起源的語言可稱作一個語言家族

which can contain many branches and sub-families.

它包含許多語言分支與次語言家族

So how do we determine whether languages are related in the first place?

但我們要如何確定哪些語言原先是彼此相關的呢?

Similar sounding words don't tell us much.

我們無法從發音相似的字彙得到答案

They could be false cognates or just directly borrowed terms

由於發音相似的字彙，或許是誤用的同源字，抑或直接借用的術語

rather than derived from a common root.

並非從同一個字源所發展而來

Grammar and syntax are a more reliable guide,

從文法與句法，以及基本字彙

as well as basic vocabulary,

所得到的答案反而較可靠

such as pronouns, numbers or kinship terms,

例如代名詞、數字與家庭稱謂

that's less likely to be borrowed.

上述這些語言用語由其他語言借來的可能性較低

By systematically comparing these features

藉著有系統地比較這些特性

and looking for regular patterns of sound changes

找尋規則的發音變化

and correspondences between languages,

以及語言間相對應之處

linguists can determine relationships,

語言學家較能夠確定語言彼此的關係

trace specific steps in their evolution

在語言演變的過程中追溯其特定演變階段

and even reconstruct earlier languages with no written records.

甚至是重建早期沒有書寫文字的語言

Linguistics can even reveal other important historical clues,

語言學家甚至可以找出與語言相關的重要歷史因素

such as determining the geographic origins and lifestyles of ancient peoples

例如依據那些字是當地用字

based on which of their words were native,

那些字是從別的語言借用來的

and which were borrowed.

去找尋出其地理上的淵源與早期人類的生活方式

There are two main problems linguists face

當學者描繪出語言家族樹時

when constructing these language family trees.

他們則面對到兩個問題

One is that there is no clear way of deciding

第一，學者無法明確地斷出

where the branches at the bottom should end,

語言分支分歧的起訖點

that is, which dialects should be considered separate languages or vice versa.

換句話說，方言是某語言的一支，抑或方言本身是一種語言

Chinese is classified as a single language,

中文是一種語言

but its dialects vary to the point of being mutually unintelligible,

但是其中的方言卻彼此相異，無法互通

while speakers of Spanish and Portuguese

然而，西班牙語與葡萄牙語

can often understand each other.

彼此多能互通

Languages actually spoken by living people

其實語言是由「活」的人類所用

do not exist in neatly divided categories,

並非獨行俠我行我素

but tend to transition gradually,

反而，彼此間交流著

crossing borders and classifications.

邊界與類別間不斷地跨越

Often the difference between languages and dialects

很多時候，語言與方言的差異僅在於

is a matter of changing political and national considerations,

不同政治因素與國家考量

rather than any linguistic features.

並非僅是語言特性上的差異

This is why the answer to, "How many languages are there?"

所以，「世界上有幾種語言?」的答案

can be anywhere between 3,000 and 8,000,

各個專業人士各有自己的算法

depending on who's counting.

答案會是三千到八千種不等

The other problem is that the farther we move back in time

另一個問題是，我們越往前追溯

towards the top of the tree,

越往語言家族樹的起始點前進

the less evidence we have about the languages there.

我們所能得到有關語言的語料越少

The current division of major language families

現今主要語系的分支

represents the limit at which relationships can be established

合理地說

with reasonable certainty,

代表不同語言關係上的界線

meaning that languages of different families

意思是，在不同語言樹上的語言

are presumed not to be related on any level.

在任何層面上是被視為互不相關的

But this may change.

不過，有朝一日這或許會改變

While many proposals for higher level relationships --

有人提出語言更高層面的關係

or super families -- are speculative,

或是較天馬行空的概念: 超級語言樹

some have been widely accepted

然而有些說法得到廣泛的支持

and others are being considered,

有些則需加以評估考慮

especially for native languages with small speaker populations

尤其是對尚未廣泛研究的

that have not been extensively studied.

少數民族語言

We may never be able to determine how language came about,

或許我們永遠無法確知語言是如何誕生的

or whether all human languages did in fact have a common ancestor

或確實全人類是否有過共同的語言始祖

scattered through the babel of migration.

只是因為遷徙後，彼此分道揚鑣變得不同

But the next time you hear a foreign language, pay attention.

但下次當你耳聞到外國語言時，注意囉

It may not be as foreign as you think.

它或許沒有你想像的那麼陌生