where the painter Hieronymus Bosch named himself after.

畫家希罗尼穆斯·波希的姓 波希 指的就是這個地方

And so I've always been very fond of this painter

我一直很喜歡這位

who lived and worked in the 15th century.

15 世紀的畫家

And what is interesting about him in relation to morality

我對他的道德觀非常感興趣

is that he lived at a time where religion's influence was waning,

他正好生在一個宗教影響力日漸衰弱的時代

and he was sort of wondering, I think,

我想 他也會覺得有點疑惑

what would happen with society

社會會怎樣發展

if there was no religion or if there was less religion.

要是沒有宗教，或者宗教響力不足的話

And so he painted this famous painting, "The Garden of Earthly Delights,"

所以他畫了一幅非常著名的畫，叫"樂園"

which some have interpreted

有些人認為這畫描繪的是

as being humanity before the Fall,

阿當和夏娃被逐出伊甸園之前的人性

or being humanity without any Fall at all.

或者是如果他們從未被逐出伊甸園的人性

And so it makes you wonder,

所以這不禁讓人想問

what would happen if we hadn't tasted the fruit of knowledge, so to speak,

如果人類沒有嚐禁果 那分辨是非的果實的話

and what kind of morality would we have?

我們又會有怎樣的道德觀呢?

Much later, as a student,

後來 那時我還是個學生

I went to a very different garden,

我去了一個非常特別的公園

a zoological garden in Arnhem

那是在荷蘭阿納姆的一個動物園

where we keep chimpanzees.

那裏養著幾隻黑猩猩

This is me at an early age with a baby chimpanzee.

照片中的是年輕時候的我和小黑猩猩

(Laughter)

(笑聲)

And I discovered there

在那裏我發現

that the chimpanzees are very power hungry and wrote a book about it.

黑猩猩非常渴望權力 針對這點 我寫了一本書

And at that time the focus in a lot of animal research

在當時很多研究都把重心

was on aggression and competition.

放在動物的侵略性和競爭性

I painted a whole picture of the animal kingdom,

我就把動物界的全貌展現出來

and humanity included,

其中包含了人性

was that deep down we are competitors,

因為說到底 我們也都在互相競爭

we are aggressive,

我們也有侵略性

we're all out for our own profit basically.

基本上我們都在爭取自己的利益

This is the launch of my book.

這是我出版的書

I'm not sure how well the chimpanzees read it,

我不知道黑猩猩讀懂了多少

but they surely seemed interested in the book.

不過 看起來他們對這本書非常感興趣

Now in the process

現在 在我做

of doing all this work on power and dominance

關於權力、支配關係以及

and aggression and so on,

侵略性等的研究過程之中

I discovered that chimpanzees reconcile after fights.

我發現黑猩猩在爭鬥後會和好

And so what you see here is two males who have had a fight.

現在你看到的是兩隻剛打完架的公黑猩猩

They ended up in a tree, and one of them holds out a hand to the other.

最後 它們在樹上著彼此的手

And about a second after I took the picture, they came together in the fork of the tree

在我拍完這張照片的下一秒鐘 它們一起來到樹枝上

and they kissed and embraced each other.

親吻和擁抱對方

Now this is very interesting

我覺得非常有趣

because at the time everything was about competition and aggression,

因為當時我只想著競爭和侵略

and so it wouldn't make any sense.

所以這看起來完全沒道理

The only thing that matters is that you win or that you lose.

重要的明明是輸贏

But why would you reconcile after a fight?

那打完架為甚麼又要和好呢?

That doesn't make any sense.

這實在說不通

This is the way bonobos do it. Bonobos do everything with sex.

這是倭黑猩猩處理的方式 它們每件事都可以扯上性

And so they also reconcile with sex.

所以它們和好的方式是做愛

But the principle is exactly the same.

這中間的道理是一樣的

The principle is that you have

就是當你有一段

a valuable relationship

很重要的關係

that is damaged by conflict,

而這關係因為衝突而被破壞了

so you need to do something about it.

所以你需要去處理這件事

So my whole picture of the animal kingdom,

所以我對整個動物界的看法

and including humans also,

還有對人類的看法

started to change at that time.

就在那時候開始有了轉變

So we have this image

所以我們可以

in political science, economics, the humanities,

從政治科學、經濟學、人文科學

philosophy for that matter,

以及哲學的角度來看這整件事

that man is a wolf to man.

人就像一匹狼

And so deep down our nature's actually nasty.

天性其實是很惡劣

I think it's a very unfair image for the wolf.

我想這樣形容其實對狼是很不公平

The wolf is, after all,

畢竟狼是

a very cooperative animal.

一種很擅於合作的動物

And that's why many of you have a dog at home,

所以才會有那麼多人在家裏養狗

which has all these characteristics also.

因為狗也是非常擅於合作的

And it's really unfair to humanity,

其實這對人性也是個不公平的描述

because humanity is actually much more cooperative and empathic

因為人性包含更多的是合作性和同理心

than given credit for.

只是我們沒太強調而已

So I started getting interested in those issues

所以我開始對這些問題產生興趣

and studying that in other animals.

並且開始研究其它動物

So these are the pillars of morality.

這是道德的支柱

If you ask anyone, "What is morality based on?"

如果你問，道德是基於什麼東西?

these are the two factors that always come out.

這答案總是脫離不了兩個因素

One is reciprocity,

一個是互惠

and associated with it is a sense of justice and a sense of fairness.

與之關聯的是正義和公平

And the other one is empathy and compassion.

另一個因素是同理心和同情心

And human morality is more than this,

人類的道德比這複雜多了

but if you would remove these two pillars,

不過要是沒有了這兩個支柱

there would be not much remaining I think.

我想其它也沒剩下太多其它的了

And so they're absolutely essential.

我想就不會有所謂的人性了

So let me give you a few examples here.

讓我給大家舉幾個例子

This is a very old video from the Yerkes Primate Center

這是 耶克斯靈長類動物中心在很久以前拍的影片

where they train chimpanzees to cooperate.

人們在訓練黑猩猩互相合作

So this is already about a hundred years ago

所以 大概是一百年前

that we were doing experiments on cooperation.

人們就已經在做關於合作的實驗

What you have here is two young chimpanzees who have a box,

你可以看到這兩隻年輕的黑猩猩 它們有個箱子

and the box is too heavy for one chimp to pull in.

這箱子的重量 光靠其中一隻黑猩猩是拉不動的

And of course, there's food on the box.

當然 箱子上面放了一些食物

Otherwise they wouldn't be pulling so hard.

不然它們不會拉得那麼使勁

And so they're bringing in the box.

它們現在正在拉那個箱子

And you can see that they're synchronized.

你看 它們動作一致

You can see that they work together, they pull at the same moment.

你可以看到它們同時使力 一起拉動箱子

It's already a big advance over many other animals

這相對於其它動物 已經是一個很大的優勢了

who wouldn't be able to do that.

很多動物都不能做到

And now you're going to get a more interesting picture,

接下來你會看到一個更有趣的畫面

because now one of the two chimps has been fed.

現在把兩隻黑猩猩中的其中一隻餵飽

So one of the two is not really interested

所以這隻猩猩對拉箱子

in the task anymore.

已經沒什麼興趣了

(Laughter)

(笑)

(Laughter)

(笑)

(Laughter)

(笑)

Now look at what happens at the very end of this.

注意看最後發生甚麼事

(Laughter)

(笑)

He takes basically everything.

它幾乎拿走所有的食物了

(Laughter)

(笑)

So there are two interesting parts about this.

這裡有兩個很有趣的部分

One is that the chimp on the right

第一個是 右邊的這隻黑猩猩

has a full understanding he needs the partner --

它很清楚它需要它的夥伴

so a full understanding of the need for cooperation.

這說明它能理解合作的重要性

The second one is that the partner is willing to work

第二個是 這個夥伴也願意幫助

even though he's not interested in the food.

即使它對那些食物已經不感興趣

Why would that be? Well that probably has to do with reciprocity.

為什麼呢? 這該和互惠有關

There's actually a lot of evidence in primates and other animals

在靈長類和一些動物身上 其實有很多證據能證明

that they return favors.

它們會報恩

So he will get a return favor

所以在將來

at some point in the future.

它會得到回報

And so that's how this all operates.

這就是動物之間相互幫助的原因

We do the same task with elephants.

我們對大象也做了同樣的實驗

Now with elephants, it's very dangerous to work with elephants.

對大象做實驗可是很危險的

Another problem with elephants

還有一個問題就是

is that you cannot make an apparatus

你沒辦法弄一個一隻大象

that is too heavy for a single elephant.

無法獨立拉動的裝置

Now you can probably make it,

其實是可以做到的

but it's going to be a pretty flimsy apparatus I think.

只是我想那東西還是不大可靠

And so what we did in that case --

所以我們採取了別的方法

we do these studies in Thailand for Josh Plotnik --

我們在泰國幫 喬希·普拉尼克做了這樣一個實驗

is we have an apparatus around which there is a rope, a single rope.

我們用一條繩子圍著裝置

And if you pull on this side of the rope,

如果只拉繩子的一端

the rope disappears on the other side.

另一邊就會往後縮

So two elephants need to pick it up at exactly the same time and pull.

所以兩隻大象必須同時撿起繩子拉

Otherwise nothing is going to happen

不然這裝置就不會動

and the rope disappears.

而繩子也會縮到裝置後面

And the first tape you're going to see

在第一段錄影裏你會看到

is two elephants who are released together

兩隻大象一起被放出

arrive at the apparatus.

來到裝置面前

The apparatus is on the left with food on it.

裝置在畫面左邊 上面放著食物

And so they come together, they arrive together,

它們同一時間被放出 一起到達

they pick it up together and they pull together.

然後一起撿起繩子 一起拉動繩子

So it's actually fairly simple for them.

對它們來說 這其實相當簡單

There they are.

它們做到了

And so that's how they bring it in.

它們就是這樣把裝置拉過來

But now we're going to make it more difficult.

現在我們要增加難度

Because the whole purpose of this experiment

因為這個實驗的目的是在於

is to see how well they understand cooperation.

找出大象對合作的理解程度

Do they understand that as well as the chimps, for example?

比如說 它們能不能達到跟黑猩猩一樣的理解程度

And so what we do in the next step

我們的下一步是

is we release one elephant before the other,

先放其中一隻大象

and that elephant needs to be smart enough

如果這隻大象夠聰明的話

to stay there and wait and not pull at the rope --

它會在那裏等 不會拉那繩子

because if he pulls at the rope, it disappears and the whole test is over.

因為如果他拉了 另一端會往後縮 實驗也就結束

Now this elephant does something illegal

現在 這隻大象犯規了

that we did not teach it.

我們沒有教它這樣做

But it shows the understanding that he has,

但是這顯示它明白

because he puts his big foot on the rope,

因為它踩著繩子的一端

stands on the rope and waits there for the other,

就站在繩子上等另一隻大象過來

and then the other is going to do all the work for him.

等另一隻大象幫它把東西拉過來

So it's what we call freeloading.

這就是我們所說的佔人家便宜

(Laughter)

(笑)

But it shows the intelligence that the elephants have.

但是這顯示這隻大象很聰明

They develop several of these alternative techniques

它們想出好幾種方法

that we did not approve of necessarily.

我們不認為這些是有必要的

So the other elephant is now coming

現在另一隻大象也過來了

and is going to pull it in.

準備要把東西拉過來

Now look at the other. The other doesn't forget to eat, of course.

看另一隻 它當然不客氣地吃

(Laughter)

(笑)

This was the cooperation, reciprocity part.

這是合作、互惠的部分

Now something on empathy.

再來 我們看同理心的部分

Empathy is my main topic at the moment of research.

同理心是我現在的研究主題

And empathy has sort of two qualities.

同理心有二項特質

One is the understanding part of it. This is just a regular definition:

一項是理解 一個常見定義是

the ability to understand and share the feelings of another.

一種能了解他人感受的能力

And the emotional part.

另一項是情感

And so empathy has basically two channels.

所以同理心基本上有兩種表達的方式

One is the body channel.

一個是身體上的

If you talk with a sad person,

如果你和一個難過的人聊天

you're going to adopt a sad expression and a sad posture,

你的臉部表情、動作早就表現得很難過

and before you know it you feel sad.

比你真的感到難過還早

And that's sort of the body channel of emotional empathy,

這可以說是用身體表現情感上的同理心

which many animals have.

很多動物都懂得這個

Your average dog has that also.

一般家裏的狗也是

That's actually why people keep mammals in the home

其實這就是為什麼人們會在家裏養哺乳類動物

and not turtles or snakes or something like that

而不是養烏龜、蛇等的動物

who don't have that kind of empathy.

這些動物沒有這種同理心

And then there's a cognitive channel,

另一個表達方式是認知

which is more that you can take the perspective of somebody else.

也就是感同身受的能力

And that's more limited.

這種能力就更少動物擁有了

There's few animals -- I think elephants and apes can do that kind of thing --

只有少數動物能做到這一點

but there are very few animals who can do that.

但我想大象和猿類可以做到

So synchronization,

而同步化

which is part of that whole empathy mechanism

是整個同理心機制的一部分

is a very old one in the animal kingdom.

而且在動物界由來已久

And in humans, of course, we can study that

我們也可以藉研究在人類確認這點

with yawn contagion.

比如說打哈欠會傳染

Humans yawn when others yawn.

人會因為別打哈欠而跟著打哈欠

And it's related to empathy.

這和同理心是有關的

It activates the same areas in the brain.

兩者會刺激相同的大腦區域

Also, we know that people who have a lot of yawn contagion

而且 我們也知道 容易跟著別人打哈欠的人

are highly empathic.

具有高度同理心

People who have problems with empathy, such as autistic children,

沒辦法表現同理心的人 像患有自閉症的小孩

they don't have yawn contagion.

他們不會跟著別人打哈欠

So it is connected.

兩者是有關聯的

And we study that in our chimpanzees by presenting them with an animated head.

為了研究這點，我們給黑猩猩看一個動畫頭像

So that's what you see on the upper-left,

這就是你在左上角看到的

an animated head that yawns.

這個動畫在打哈欠

And there's a chimpanzee watching,

這隻黑猩猩看著

an actual real chimpanzee watching a computer screen

真正的黑猩猩看著電腦螢幕

on which we play these animations.

螢幕上正放著這動畫

(Laughter)

(笑)

So yawn contagion

它跟著打哈欠

that you're probably all familiar with --

大家可能對這很熟悉

and maybe you're going to start yawning soon now --

可能你等一下就開始打起哈欠

is something that we share with other animals.

這機制是人類和一些動物共有的

And that's related to that whole body channel of synchronization

這和身體同步化的方式有關

that underlies empathy

是同理心的基礎

and that is universal in the mammals basically.

是基本上所有哺乳類動物共有的

Now we also study more complex expressions. This is consolation.

接下來我們可以研究一下更複雜的表達 安慰

This is a male chimpanzee who has lost a fight and he's screaming,

這隻公黑猩猩剛打輸了 正在吼叫

and a juvenile comes over and puts an arm around him

這一隻少年黑猩猩靠過去 用一隻手抱著它

and calms him down.

想讓它冷靜下來

That's consolation. It's very similar to human consolation.

這是安慰 和人類的安慰很相似

And consolation behavior,

而安慰這行為

it's empathy driven.

是由同理心驅動的

Actually the way to study empathy in human children

事實上 要研究人類小孩的同理心

is to instruct a family member to act distressed,

就讓小孩的家人表現得很憂傷

and then they see what young children do.

然後看小孩會怎麼反應

And so it is related to empathy,

這和同理心有關

and that's the kind of expressions we look at.

也就是我們想看到的

We also recently published an experiment you may have heard about.

我們最近也發表了一個實驗 各位也許有聽過

It's on altruism and chimpanzees

是關於黑猩猩的利他行為

where the question is, do chimpanzees care

這裏有個問題 黑猩猩會在乎

about the welfare of somebody else?

其它個體的福祉嗎?

And for decades it had been assumed

數十年來 大家都認為

that only humans can do that,

只有人類會能做到

that only humans worry about the welfare of somebody else.