where we take for granted

在這個時代我們想當然爾

that scientists are going to work together with the police,

認為科學家會與警察合作

help them solve crimes,

幫助他們破案

map fingerprints,

採集指紋

analyze poisons,

分析毒藥

but in fact, this is really a very new idea.

但事實是，這是很新的概念

We only actually started training scientists and forensics

我們真正訓練科學家及法醫專家

in this country in the 1930s.

在這個國家也不過是在 1930 年代才開始

So as a writer interested in chemistry,

所以身為對化學感興趣的作家

what I wondered was,

我想知道的是

"What was it like before scientists knew

「它是什麼樣子呢？在科學家知道

how to tease a poison out of a corpse,

如何從一具屍體中測試毒藥前，

before you could actually catch a killer that way?"

在你真的能以這種方法逮捕兇手前？」

And it won't surprise you to learn

而你不會驚訝得知

that the answer is pretty dangerous.

答案是還挺危險

And in fact, in 1918, New York City issued a report

其實在 1918 年，紐約市出了份報告

admitting that smart poisoners could operate

承認聰明的犯人可能

with impunity in the city.

在這個城市逍遙法外

This is a 1918 crime scene photo from Brooklyn,

這是一張1918 年[br]布魯克林犯罪現場的照片

and at this time, the coroner system was so corrupt

在那段時間，驗屍官系統是如此腐敗

that you could literally buy your cause of death.

你真的可以買通你自己的死因

Often coroners didn't even show up at crime scenes.

常常驗屍官甚至不在犯罪現場出現

And if you go back and you look at the death certificates of the time,

如果你回溯去看看[br]那時候的死亡證明書

I found one that read,

我發現有一張是這麼寫的

"Could be an auto accident or possibly diabetes."

「可能是車禍，也有可能是糖尿病。」

And another, which involved a man who shot himself in the head,

而另一張，涉及一個男人[br]開槍射擊自己的頭部

said, "ruptured aneurysm".

寫著：「動脈瘤破裂。」

So you find, not surprisingly, the police saying,

所以你會發現這一點都不奇怪[br]警察會這麼說

"We're going to look a lot smarter

「我們會看起來聰明很多，

if we stay away from the science side of the story."

如果我們不看這個故事的科學面。」

But, in 1918 New York City appointed

但在 1918 年紐約市指派了

the first trained medical examiner it ever had.

有始以來第一位受過訓的法醫

That's the gentleman sitting down there.

就是那位坐在那兒的紳士

And he hired the first forensic toxicologist ever

而且他聘了史上[br]第一位法醫毒理學家

attached to an American city.

附屬在一個美國市府下

And together, these two men,

而這兩人合作

Charles Norris, the medical examiner,

查爾斯·諾里斯，這位法醫

and Alexander Gettler, the chemist sitting next to him,

及亞歷山大·蓋特勒[br]坐在他旁邊的這位化學家

rewrote the rules of crime detection in this country.

重新改寫了這個國家犯罪偵查的規則

And that wasn't easy because poisons were everywhere.

而那並不容易，因為毒藥無所不在

If we take this one, arsenic trioxide,

如果我們拿這個為例[br]三氧化二砷（砒霜）

arsenic trioxide's probably the most famous homicidal poison in history

三氧化二砷大概是[br]史上最有名的自殺毒藥

and it was in every home.

而且每一個家庭都有

Anyone could go to the grocery store or the pharmacy and buy it.

任何人都可以去雜貨店或藥房買它

It was in every kitchen because,

每個廚房裡都有，因為

believe it or not, it was used to color food.

信不信由你，它用於食物染色

It was in medicines

它用於醫藥

and it was in cosmetics

它也用於化妝品

in ways that prevented people from really understanding

使用如此廣泛，阻礙了人們去真正瞭解

how dangerous these poisons were

這些毒藥的危險性

or how they worked.

或它們如何致毒

Now, scientists had in the 19th century

那麼，科學家自 19 世紀起

begun developing tests to look for poisons in corpses.

就開始研發測試法[br]以找出屍體內的毒藥

But as this cartoon shows you of the first test for arsenic,

但就如這張第一次砷測試的漫畫所示

these were very primitive tests,

這些是非常原始的測試法

so, that our heroes really have to figure this out

所以，我們的英雄真的得把它搞清楚

as they go in the 1920s.

在他們於 1920 年代開始工作時

Gettler, for instance, was the first person in the world

舉個例，蓋特勒是世上第一位

to know how to tell if someone was drunk at time of death.

知道如何分辨某人[br]在死亡時間是否酒醉

He figured that out right about 1930

他大約就在 1930 把這件事弄清楚

and he said later it took him 6,000 brains from the morgue

而他後來說這大概花了他[br]六千顆停屍間的腦袋

to get to the point that he could get to that answer.

才讓他找到答案的重點所在

And to give you a sense of what this is like,

而為了讓你對這有點概念

I'm going to ask you for a moment

我要請大家暫時

to become 1920s forensic detectives.

變成 1920 年代的法醫偵探

This is a case based on one solved by Alexander Gettler in 1923,

這是根據一件在 1923 年[br]由蓋特勒所解決的案件

and as you can probably tell,

而你大概可以猜到

it's a case that begins in a tenement building.

這個案件從一棟移民公寓開始

This particular one was on the Lower East Side of Manhattan.

這間公寓位於曼哈頓下東城

And these buildings were very crowded

這些公寓都非常擁擠

with families who had very little money.

住著沒有什麼錢的家庭

And the rooms were very poor.

而且房子都很破舊

This is actually an abandoned room

這實際上是一間廢棄屋

at the Tenement House Museum

陳設在移民公寓博物館

that is in Lower Manhattan today.

位於今天的曼哈頓下城

These rooms often had no electricity,

這些房子通常沒有電

they had no hot water,

沒有熱水

and people who lived this way

而以這種方式過活的人

depended on gas to fuel everything

依賴瓦斯為燃料

from their stove to their electric lights.

從爐臺到電燈皆是

And this gas was called illuminating gas,

而這種瓦斯稱作煤氣

and it was both a toxic and explosive mixture

它是由毒性爆炸性兩者兼具的

of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

一氧化碳及氫氣的混合物

So you, the forensic scientist, are called

所以你這位法醫科學家，被傳喚到

to a crime scene in a tenement house.

位在移民公寓的犯罪現場

This is actually a police photo from the time in question,

這實際上是一張時間未明的警察存證照片

but the story that I'm going to tell you

但我要告訴你的這個故事

is a little more complicated than this.

比時間考證還要稍微複雜一點

Nevertheless, you're going to go into this building,

儘管如此，你要進到這棟建築物

you're going to walk down this hall,

你要走過這個大廳

you're going to go through the door,

你要穿過這扇門

and you're going to find yourself

而你將發現你自己

in a very shabby apartment.

位於一間非常簡陋的公寓

The floors are splintered,

地板裂開了

the walls are peeling,

牆壁剝落

there's only gas lighting,

這裡只有瓦斯燈

and in this case,

而在這個案件

you go into the back bedroom.

你要進到後面的臥室

There's clearly been a gas leak,

很明顯是有瓦斯漏氣

there's a broken fitting on the wall.

牆上是有個壞掉的管線接頭

The police are opening the windows,

警察正打開窗戶

and in the bed there's the body of young woman

而在床上有一具年輕女人的屍體

who's clearly been dead for some time

很明顯她已經死亡多時

because she's cold

因為她的身體冷了

and she's stiff

而且她很僵硬

and she's pale.

而且她很死白

And you turn to the police and you say,

你轉向警察，你說

"No, this is not an illuminating gas death

「不對，這不是煤氣致死事件

because...."

因為⋯」

Because if you're killed by carbon monoxide,

因為如果你是因一氧化碳中毒而死

there is such a powerful chemical reaction in your blood

你的血液會有一種非常強勁的化學反應

as the oxygen is muscled out of the blood stream

就是氧氣會被擠出血液

that the blood cells are turned a bright, cherry red.

血球細胞會轉變成鮮明的櫻桃紅色

And this red is so strong that it flushes the skin

而這種紅色是如此強烈，它會使皮膚泛紅

of the corpse a cherry pink.

讓屍體呈現櫻桃般粉色

In fact, people who see bodies

事實上，看過屍體的人

after someone has died of a carbon monoxide death,

在看過因一氧化碳而死的屍體後

they'll often talk about how healthy they look.

他們常會說這些屍體看起來有多健康

So your poor, pale corpse could not have been killed by this gas.

所以你那具可憐蒼白的屍體[br]不可能死於這種氣體

You take the body back to the morgue,

你把屍體帶回停屍間

you run more blood tests,

你又做了幾項測試

and you find another gas at extremely high levels,

然後你發現另一種氣體的含量非常高

carbon dioxide.

二氧化碳

And what does that tell you?

那這告訴你了什麼？

If you think about the way we breath,

如果你想想我們呼吸的方式

we inhale oxygen,

我們吸進氧氣

we exhale carbon dioxide,

我們呼出二氧化碳

but what if you can't exhale?

但如果你不能呼氣會怎樣？

What if that gas can't get out?

如果那種氣體不能釋出會怎樣？

It backs up into your lungs,

它會累積在你的肺裡

and the number one clue of a suffocation or a strangulation

而窒息或勒死的第一線索

is elevated levels of carbon dioxide in the blood.

就是血液裡升高的二氧化碳量

And in fact, what they found

事實上，他們發現

when they took a closer look at the body

當他們仔細檢查那具屍體

were the bruise marks left by her husband's fingers

有她的丈夫所留下的瘀青指痕

as he had held her down and suffocated her.

在他把她壓住並勒死她的時後

And it turned out that he had

原來他之前

taken out an insurance policy on her life,

買了她的人壽保險

suffocated her,

勒死她

broken the gas fitting to try to stage an accident scene,

弄壞瓦斯管線，試著佈置成一起意外事件

and it turned out that it was chemistry

結果是化學

that sent him to prison.

把他送進了監牢

There are so many good poison and murder stories

有太多很棒的毒殺及謀殺故事

from this time period that I would love to tell you.

發生在這段時間，我真想說給你們聽

It's one of my favorite subjects obviously.

很明顯這是我很喜歡的題目

But I want to leave you with this thought.

但我想留給你這個想法

Two things.

兩件事

One is that case that I just described to you

第一是我剛剛才描述給你們聽的案件

is one of my favorites

是我最喜歡的

because it's the beginning of a series of investigations

因為這是一系列調查的開始

that persuade the New York police

其說服了紐約警察

that they do need to work with scientists

他們的確需要與科學家合作

and it lays the foundation for, in fact,

而這其實也

our CSI-era age,

為我們的 CSI 時代立下了基礎

and, because it's such a good story of two very determined people,

而且，因為這是個有關[br]兩個非常堅決的人的好故事

in this case two city scientists,

在這個例子是兩個市府科學家

who were able to change the world around them.

能夠改變他們周圍的世界

Thank you.

謝謝