In the 17th century, a woman named Giulia Tofana

17世紀，有個女人名叫Giulia Tofana

had a very successful perfume business.

她有一個很成功的香水事業

For over 50 years she ran it.

在她經營的50多年間。

It sort of ended abruptly when she was executed — (Laughter) —

這事業結束的很突然，就在她被處死的時候--(笑聲)--

for murdering 600 men. You see, it wasn't a very good perfume.

罪名是謀殺六百位男性。你可以知道， 這不是一個非常好的香水。

In fact, it was completely odorless and tasteless and colorless,

事實上，它是一個完全無氣味無味道也無顏色，

but as a poison, it was the best money could buy,

但就一個毒藥來說，它是一個最划算的選擇。

so women flocked to her in order to murder their husbands.

所以女人們聚集到他那裡，為了要謀殺她們的丈夫

It turns out that poisoners were a valued and feared group,

結果就是那些下毒者們是一個有價值且被畏懼的群體

because poisoning a human being is a quite difficult thing.

因為要對一個人下毒是一件蠻困難的事情。

The reason is, we have sort of a built-in poison detector.

原因是，我們有的像是內建的辨毒偵測器，

You can see this as early as even in newborn infants.

早在新生兒的時期你就會看見

If you are willing to do this, you can take a couple of drops

如果你願意做這個實驗，你可以嚐嚐幾滴

of a bitter substance or a sour substance,

苦的或酸的物質

and you'll see that face, the tongue stick out, the wrinkled nose,

你會看到那個臉部表情，舌頭吐出來，皺起鼻子

as if they're trying to get rid of what's in their mouth.

好像他們正在嘗試要把那在嘴裡的東西吐出來。

This reaction expands into adulthood and becomes

這個反應也延伸到成人階段，並且成為

sort of a full-blown disgust response, no longer just

一個的激烈的厭惡反應，不再只是限於

about whether or not we're about to be poisoned,

我們是否快要中毒時，

but whenever there's a threat of physical contamination

而是只要從一有來自物理的污染威脅

from some source. But the face remains strikingly similar.

就會有這個反應。這厭惡的臉孔十分相似。

It has expanded more, though, than just keeping us away

這個反應延伸得很廣，不只是使我們免於

from physical contaminants, and there's a growing

身體上的污染。有越來越多證據說明

body of evidence to suggest that, in fact, this emotion

事實上，

of disgust now influences our moral beliefs

這個厭惡的情緒影響了我們的道德信念

and even our deeply held political intuitions.

甚至我們深信的政治直覺

Why this might be the case?

為什麼會這樣呢？

We can understand this process by understanding

透過大略的瞭解一些關於情緒的知識，

a little bit about emotions in general. So the basic human emotions,

我們就可以瞭解這個過程。人類基本的情緒，

those kinds of emotions that we share with all other human beings,

這些我們和其他人都一起共有的情緒，

exist because they motivate us to do good things

他們存在以至於可以推動我們去做好的事情，

and they keep us away from doing bad things.

而且他們也會防止我們去做不好的事情。

So by and large, they are good for our survival.

所以大致來說，這些情緒對於我們的生存來說是有益的。

Take the emotion of fear, for instance. It keeps us away

就拿恐懼這個情緒來說，它防止我們

from doing things that are really, really risky.

去做一些有極大風險的事。

This photo taken just before his death — (Laughter) —

這張照片是在他死前拍下的--（笑聲）--

is actually a — No, one reason this photo is interesting

這事實上是個--不，這張照片之所以有趣

is because most people would not do this, and if they did,

是因為絕大多數的人不會做這件事，而且就算他們做了，

they would not live to tell it, because fear would have

他們也不會在活著的時候 去告訴別人這件事，因為恐懼感早在

kicked in a long time ago to a natural predator.

更早之前就對它的天敵發出訊號了。

Just like fear offers us protective benefits, disgust seems

就像恐懼感，它提供我們保護的益處，

to do the same thing, except for what disgust does is

厭惡感也會有相同的功能， 除了說厭惡感的存在

keeps us away from not things that might eat us,

不是為了要使我們與 會把我們吃掉的東西，

or heights, but rather things that might poison us,

或著是與高度保持距離； （厭惡感）的功能是要使我們與有毒物質保持距離，

or give us disease and make us sick.

或著避免我們感染疾病。

So one of the features of disgust that makes it such

所以說，讓厭惡感成為一個有趣情緒的

an interesting emotion is that it's very, very easy to elicit,

其中一個特點就是他非常容易被激發

in fact more so than probably any of the other basic emotions,

比起任何一個基本的情緒

and so I'm going to show you that with a couple of images

我現在要給你們看一些照片

I can probably make you feel disgust.

可能會讓你感到厭惡

So turn away. I'll tell you when you can turn back.

所以你可以轉頭（不看）， 我會告訴你甚麼時候可以回頭

(Laughter)

（笑聲）

I mean, you see it every day, right? I mean, come on. (Laughter)

你每天都看到這個，不是嗎？（笑聲）

(Audience: Ewww.)

（觀眾：Ewww）

Okay, turn back, if you didn't look.

好了，那些剛剛不敢看的人，妳們現在可以轉回來。

Those probably made a lot of you in the audience

這些照片應該讓在座的很多人

feel very, very disgusted, but if you didn't look,

感到非常非常噁心，但如果你們剛剛沒有看

I can tell you about some of the other things that have been shown

我可以告訴你的一些我剛剛展示的照片

sort of across the world to make people disgusted,

它們其實散布在全世界各角落，讓人們感到噁心

things like feces, urine, blood, rotten flesh.

像是糞，尿，血，腐爛的肉。

These are the sorts of things that it makes sense

這些東西都是讓我們理所當然

for us to stay away from, because they might actually contaminate us.

要保持距離的，因為他們可能會真的污染我們

In fact, just having a diseased appearance

事實上，只要有一個患病的外觀

or odd sexual acts, these things are also

或著是奇怪的性行為，這些都讓我們

things that give us a lot of disgust.

感到十分厭惡

Darwin was probably one of the first scientists

達爾文可能是首批科學家之一

to systematically investigate the human emotions,

去系統化的研究人類的各樣情感

and he pointed to the universal nature and the strength

並且他也指出厭惡感的

of the disgust response.

普遍性質和強度

This is an anecdote from his travels in South America.

這是一個他在南美旅行的軼事。

"In Tierro del Fuego a native touched with his finger

在Tierro地島有個原住民在我吃飯的時候

some cold preserved meat while I was eating ...

用他的手指觸摸一些冷藏的肉

and plainly showed disgust at its softness, whilst I felt

然後有些痛苦地露現出厭惡的神情，雖然我覺得

utter disgust at my food being touched by a naked savage — (Laughter) —

我的食物被一個赤裸裸的野蠻人很噁心 --（笑聲）--

though his hands did not appear dirty."

但他的手其實看起來不髒。

He later wrote, "It's okay, some of my best friends are naked savages." (Laughter)

他之後寫道：“沒關係，我有一些好朋友也是赤裸的野蠻人。”

Well it turns out it's not only old-timey British scientists

這個結果說明了其實不只是早期的英國科學家

who are this squeamish. I recently got a chance

這麼容易感到厭惡，我最近有一個機會

to talk to Richard Dawkins for a documentary,

去談談理查德·道金斯（Richard Dawkins）的紀錄片，

and I was able to disgust him a bunch of times. Here's my favorite.

然後我數度讓他感到很厭惡。這是我最喜歡的：

Richard Dawkins: "We've evolved around courtship and sex,

理查德·道金斯說：“我們進化成長圍繞著求愛和性，

are attached to deep-rooted emotions and reactions

他們連接到根深蒂固的情緒和反應

that are hard to jettison overnight."

那是很難在一夕間被丟棄的。

David Pizarro: So my favorite part of this clip is that

我最喜歡的片段是在

Professor Dawkins actually gagged.

道金斯教授作嘔的時候。

He jumps back, and he gags, and we had to do it three times,

他往後彈，然後作嘔，然後我們還必須做這這件事三遍

and all three times he gagged. (Laughter)

然後每次他都作嘔。（笑聲）

And he was really gagging. I thought he might throw up on me, actually.

他真的作嘔噢。我想他當時真的很想嘔吐在我身上。

One of the features, though, of disgust,

厭惡噁心感的特點之一

is not just its universality and its strength,

並不是它的普遍性或強度，

but the way that it works through association.

而是它透過結合運作

So when one disgusting thing touches a clean thing,

當一個噁心的東西去接觸到一個乾淨的東西，

that clean thing becomes disgusting, not the other way around.

那的乾淨的東西就會變的噁心，而不是其他方式

This makes it very useful as a strategy if you want to

這就成了一個非常有用的策略，如果你想要

convince somebody that an object or an individual

試著說服別人，有一個東西或著一個人

or an entire social group is disgusting and should be avoided.

或著整個社會群體是很噁心的而且我們應該要避免。

The philosopher Martha Nussbaum points this out

哲學家瑪莎·努斯鮑姆（Martha Nussbaum ）指出了這一點

in this quote: "Thus throughout history, certain disgust

”因此，在整個歷史，某些厭惡的

properties -- sliminess, bad smell, stickiness, decay, foulness --

東西--黏滑的，難聞的氣味，粘性，腐敗，卑鄙--

have been repeatedly and monotonously been associated with ...

曾多次且千篇一律的與

Jews, women, homosexuals, untouchables, lower-class people --

猶太人，女人，同性戀，賤民，低階級人士--

all of those are imagined as tainted by the dirt of the body."

這些都被看作為身上的沾染的污穢

Let me give you just some examples of how, some powerful

讓我告訴你麼一些例子，

examples of how this has been used historically.

讓你們看看這種策略是如何在歷史上被利用的。

This comes from a Nazi children's book published in 1938:

這來自於在1938年岀版的納粹的童書，

"Just look at these guys! The louse-infested beards,

“看看這些人，這有蝨出沒的鬍鬚，

the filthy, protruding ears, those stained, fatty clothes...

骯髒的，突出的耳朵，那些有汙垢，油漬的衣服...

Jews often have an unpleasant sweetish odor.

猶太人經常有不好的甜膩氣味

If you have a good nose, you can smell the Jews."

如果你的鼻子夠敏感，你就可以聞出猶太人。“

A more modern example comes from people who try to

一個更接近當代的例子，來自於一群試著要

convince us that homosexuality is immoral.

說服我們同性戀是不道德的人們。

This is from an anti-gay website, where they said

這是一個反同性戀的網站，他們說

gays are "worthy of death for their vile ... sex practices."

男同志們士"他們的卑鄙...性行為是該死的。"

They're like "dogs eating their own vomit and sows wallowing in their own feces."

他們就像”狗在吃自己的嘔吐物， 還有母豬沉溺在自己的糞便“

These are disgust properties that are trying to be directly

這些都是令人厭惡的東西，企圖要將之直接與

linked to the social group that you should not like.

這些社會群體連接，讓你覺得應該不要去喜歡他們。

When we were first investigating the role of disgust in

當我們第一次研究厭惡感在道德判斷中

moral judgment, one of the things we became interested in

所扮演的角色時，有件事讓我們非常感興趣的是

was whether or not these sorts of appeals are more likely

這些吸引力會在一些

to work in individuals who are more easily disgusted.

容易感到厭惡感情緒的人身上發揮作用。

So while disgust, along with the other basic emotions,

所以，當厭惡感，還有其他基本的情緒

are universal phenomena, it just really is true

都是很普遍的現象的同時，有些特定的人就是會

that some people are easier to disgust than others.

比其他人更容易感到厭惡

You could probably see it in the audience members

你或許已經在這個觀眾席中看到，

when I showed you those disgusting images.

當我給你們看那些噁心的照片的時候。

The way that we measured this was by a scale that was

我們衡量的方法，是用其他心理學家製作的

constructed by some other psychologists

一個評分算法。

that simply asked people across a wide variety of situations

就是簡單地問來自不同狀況的人們

how likely they are to feel disgust.

他們多常感受到厭惡噁心的情緒。

So here are a couple of examples.

這是一些例子：

"Even if I were hungry, I would not drink a bowl of my

”如果這碗湯是用一個已使用過但洗過的蒼蠅拍攪拌過，

favorite soup if it had been stirred by a used but thoroughly washed fly-swatter."

就算我感到很餓，我也不會去喝那碗我最愛的湯，”

"Do you agree or disagree?" (Laughter)

“你們同不同意？” （笑聲）

"While you are walking through a tunnel under a railroad track,

“當你正在穿越一個在火車軌道下的一個隧道，

you smell urine. Would you be very disgusted or not at all disgusted?"

你聞到尿味，你會感覺非常噁心，或是覺得沒差？“

If you ask enough of these, you can get a general overall

如果你問足了這類型的問題，你就可以有一個

score of disgust sensitivity.

大概的厭惡感敏銳度的評分。

It turns out that this score is actually meaningful.

結果發現，這個算法是很有意義的。

When you bring people into the laboratory and you ask

當你把一群人帶到實驗室，然後你問他們

them if they're willing to engage in safe but disgusting behaviors

他們是否願意去做一些安全但噁心的行為，

like eating chocolate that's been baked to look like dog poop,

像是吃一條長得像狗大便的巧克力，

or in this case eating some mealworms that are perfectly healthy but pretty gross,

或著，就這個例子來說， 吃一些完全健康但蠻噁心的麵包蟲，

your score on that scale actually predicts whether or not

你的得分在那個評分中就會預測你是否

you'll be willing to engage in those behaviors.

會願意去加入這些行為。

The first time that we set out to collect data on this

我們的一次收集這些資料

and associate it with political or moral beliefs,

然後將它跟政治或道德信念連結時，

we found a general pattern --

我們發現一個大概的規律--

this is with the psychologists Yoel Inbar and Paul Bloom --

這是跟心理學家約埃爾·因巴爾（Yoel Inbar) 和保羅·布魯姆（ Paul Bloom）發現的--

that in fact, across three studies we kept finding

事實上，在這些研究中，我們不斷發現

that people who reported that they were easily disgusted

那些說自己很容易感到厭惡或噁心的人

also reported that they were more politically conservative.

也同時會說他們在政治上比較保守

Another way to say this, though, is that people

換句話說，那些

who are very liberal are very hard to disgust. (Laughter)

非常開放的人很難感到厭惡。（笑聲）

In a more recent follow-up study, we were able to look at

一個比較近期的研究，我們有辦法去看

a much greater sample, a much larger sample. In this case,

一個比較大的，比較多的樣品。在這裡，

this is nearly 30,000 U.S. respondents,

樣本是接近三萬美國受訪者，

and we find the same pattern. As you can see,

我們發現一樣的規律性。你會看到

people who are on the very conservative side

那些非常保守地去回答政治取向的人

of answering the political orientation scale are

他們的評分

also much more likely to report that they're easily disgusted.

也多半傾向於容易感到厭惡。

This data set also allowed us to statistically control

這個數據同時也讓我們有辦法去有策略地控制

for a number of things that we knew were both related

一些事情，特別是當我們知道

to political orientation and to disgust sensitivity.

政治取向和厭惡敏銳度的關聯性。

So we were able to control for gender, age, income,

我們就有辦法去控制性別，年紀，收入

education, even basic personality variables,

教育，甚至基本特質的變因。

and the result stays the same.

而且結果都是一樣的。

When we actually looked at not just self-reported political orientation,

當我們不再只是看到自我評量的政治取向，

but voting behavior, we were able to look geographically

而是投票行為，我們就有辦法看到所有橫跨國家

across the nation. What we found was that in regions

的地區。我們發現的是，在那些

in which people reported high levels of disgust sensitivity,

有高度厭惡感敏銳度的地區，

McCain got more votes.

麥肯 (McCain，共和黨 )得到比較多票

So it not only predicted self-reported political orientation,

所以說，這不只是預測了自我評量的政治取向，

but actual voting behavior. And also we were able,

而是實際上的投票行為。我們也有機會

with this sample, to look across the world,

用這個樣本，去看全世界

in 121 different countries we asked the same questions,

在121個國家，我們問了相同的問題，

and as you can see, this is 121 countries collapsed

你會看到，這121個國家分裂成

into 10 different geographical regions.

10個不同的地理的區

No matter where you look, what this is plotting is the size

不管你從哪裡看，這個平面圖 是他們在厭惡感敏銳度和

of the relationship between disgust sensitivity and political orientation,

政治取向的連結的大小。

and no matter where we looked, we saw a very similar effect.

我們看到無論身在何處， 我們看到了一個非常類似的效果。

Other labs have actually looked at this as well

另一個實驗也觀察到這個，

using different measures of disgust sensitivity,

運用不同的測量方式來測試豔舞感敏銳度，

so rather than asking people how easily disgusted they are,

他們不去問人們有多容易感到厭惡

they hook people up to physiological measures,

他們將人們連結於生理衡量

in this case skin conductance.

在這裡指的是皮膚電導。

And what they've demonstrated is that people who report

他們表現出的是，那些說他們在政治觀

being more politically conservative are also more physiologically aroused

比較保守的人，同時在生理上比較容易激動。

when you show them disgusting images like the ones that I showed you.

當你給他們看那些噁心的照片， 就像我剛剛給你們看的那些，

Interestingly, what they also showed in a finding

很有趣地，他們同時也在這個研究中表現出，

that we kept getting in our previous studies as well

就像我們之前的研究一樣，

was that one of the strongest influences here is that

這裡最強的影響之一是，

individuals who are very disgust-sensitive not only are

那些容易感到厭惡的人

more likely to report being politically conservative, but

不只會傾向於於政治保守，同時

they're also very much more opposed to gay marriage

他們也會更反對同性戀結婚，

and homosexuality and pretty much a lot of

同性戀傾向，以及許多

the socio-moral issues in the sexual domain.

在性領域的社會道德問題。

So physiological arousal predicted, in this study,

因此，生理抗奮所預測的，在這項研究中

attitudes toward gay marriage.

對同性婚姻的態度

But even with all these data linking disgust sensitivity

但是，即使所有這些數據連接厭惡敏感性

and political orientation, one of the questions that remains is

和政治取向，有個問題仍然是

what is the causal link here? Is it the case that

這裡的因果關係是什麼？

disgust really is shaping political and moral beliefs?

厭惡真的在塑造政治和道德​​信念嗎？

We have to resort to experimental methods to answer this,

我們必須訴諸實驗方法來回答這個問題，

and so what we can do is actually bring people into the lab

我們可以做的其實是把人帶進實驗室來

and disgust them and compare them to a control group

讓他們感到厭惡，然後將他們 和那些沒感受厭惡感的對照組

that hasn't been disgusted. It turns out that over

進行比較。結果是

the past five years a number of researchers have done this,

五年多來很多的研究員都做過這個實驗，

and by and large the results have all been the same,

大部份的結果都是一樣的，

that when people are feeling disgust, their attitudes

當人們感到厭惡，他們的態度

shift towards the right of the political spectrum,

轉向右翼的政治光譜，

toward more moral conservatism as well.

也更傾向於道德保守主義。

So this is whether you use a foul odor, a bad taste,

因此，這是你是否使用難聞的氣味，不好的味道，

from film clips, from post-hypnotic suggestions of disgust,

從電影片段，從後催眠所暗示的厭惡，

images like the ones I've shown you, even just

類似我剛剛展示的那些圖片，甚至只是

reminding people that disease is prevalent and they should

提醒人們有個疾病非常普遍，他們應該

be wary of it and wash up, right, to keep clean,

警惕地清洗，保持清潔

these all have similar effects on judgment.