reminds me of an aphorism, of a

這讓我想起了

comment of Woody Allen

伍迪艾倫評論中的格言:

to ask about what is the very best thing to have within your skull.

"在我們的頭顱裡，最棒的是什麼?"

And it's this machine.

而答案就是這部機器。

And it's constructed for change. It's all about change.

他是為了改變而建造的。一切都是為了改變。

It confers on us the ability to do things tomorrow that we can't do today,

它讓我們明天可以做今天原本不會做的東西。

things today that we couldn't do yesterday.

今天可以做昨天不會的事。

And of course it's born stupid.

當然他在初生時是很愚笨的。

The last time you were in the presence of a baby --

出現在你們面前的這個嬰兒

this happens to be my granddaughter, Mitra.

這恰好是我的孫女，Mitra。

Isn't she fabulous?

他看起來是不是很棒?

(Laughter)

笑聲

But nonetheless when she popped out

在從子宮蹦出來時，

despite the fact that her brain had actually been progressing

雖然她的大腦早已經

in its development for several months before

開始發展，

on the basis of her experiences in the womb --

並持續了數個月。

nonetheless she had very limited abilities,

然而，就如同每個正常

as does every infant

出生的嬰兒一樣，

at the time of normal, natural full-term birth.

她的能力還是很有限。

If we were to assay her perceptual abilities, they would be crude.

假如我們想要去檢驗他們的感知能力，可能會發現它還是相當原始，粗糙。

There is no real indication that there is any real thinking going on.

因為沒有實際證明顯示他們在進行真實的思考。

In fact there is little evidence that there is any

事實上，沒有什麼證據顯示

cognitive ability in a very young infant.

小嬰兒有任何的認知能力。

Infants don't respond to much.

他們通常不會對外在的事物有太多反應。

There is not really much of an indication in fact that there is a person on board.

事實上沒有太多的跡象指出，有人在大腦中指揮。

(Laughter)

笑聲

And they can only in a very primitive way, and in a very limited way

而他們只能用很原始的方式，有限的方式來

control their movements.

控制自己的動作。

It would be several months before this infant

他們需要數個月的時間

could do something as simple as reach out and grasp

來練習簡單的動作，

under voluntary control an object and retrieve it,

如到達某個物體的位置，

usually to the mouth.

並把它拿起來(通常是放到嘴裡)。

And it will be some months beforeward,

而需要再幾個月的時間，

and we see a long steady progression

我們可以看到持續性的進步，

of the evolution from the first wiggles,

從一開始的蠕動，翻身，

to rolling over, and sitting up, and crawling,

到坐起來，

standing, walking,

爬行，站立，行走，

before we get to that magical point

直到最後能夠恣意的

in which we can motate in the world.

在所處的環境活動。

And yet, when we look forward in the brain

然而，當我們觀察大腦時，

we see really remarkable advance.

此時，我們可以看到大腦顯著的進步。

By this age the brain can actually store.

大腦在這個時候才真正可以的儲存訊息。

It has stored, recorded,

它可以儲存，紀錄，

can fastly retrieve

快速的提取

the meanings of thousands,

世上數以千計

tens of thousands of objects,

數以萬計

actions, and their relationships in the world.

個物體的意義,動作以及彼此之間的關係。

And those relationships can in fact be constructed in hundreds of thousands,

而事實上，這些關係可以用上百種，

potentially millions of ways.

上千種，甚至百萬的方式建構起來。

By this age the brain controls very refined perceptual abilities.

而在這個時候，大腦會發展出精密的感知能力。

And it actually has a growing repertoire of cognitive skills.

並且會逐漸的發展出多樣不同的認知技巧。

This brain is very much a thinking machine.

它很像是個會思考的機器。

And by this age there is absolutely no question

而在這個年紀，甲板上已經有人在指揮，

that this brain, it has a person on board.

是絕對毫無疑問的。

And in fact at this age it is substantially controlling its own self-development.

事實上，在這個年紀的大腦幾乎可以完全控制自己的發展。

And by this age we see a remarkable evolution

並且我們可以看到大腦在

in its capacity to control movement.

控制動作能力方面明顯的進步。

Now movement has advanced to the point

現在移動的精密度

where it can actually control movement simultaneously,

已經進步到

in a complex sequence, in complex ways

它可以立即的，

as would be required for example

同時控制

for playing a complicated game,

一連串複雜的動作，

like soccer.

例如玩足球。

Now this boy can bounce a soccer ball on his head.

在這個年紀，男孩已經可以把足球放在頭上旋轉。

And where this boy comes from, Sao Paulo, Brazil,

這個男孩來自巴西的聖保羅，

about 40 percent of boys of his age have this ability.

當地有40%的男孩都具有這樣的能力。

You could go out into the community in Monterey,

你可以到位於Monterey的社區，

and you'd have difficulty finding a boy that has this ability.

在那裏可能很難找的到有這樣能力的男孩，

And if you did he'd probably be from Sao Paulo.

而如果真的找到了,那他可能也是來自聖保羅。

(Laughter)

笑聲

That's all another way of saying

透過這個例子，我們可以知道，

that our individual skills and abilities

大腦在認知方面獨特的技巧與能力，

are very much shaped by our environments.

常常是由環境形塑的。

That environment extends into our contemporary culture,

環境擴展了我們所在的文化情境，

the thing our brain is challenged with.

那個使我們大腦面臨挑戰的文化情境。

Because what we've done in our personal evolutions

因為我們已經完成建構

is build up a large repertoire of specific skills and abilities

在個體進化歷程中，所需的

that are specific to our own individual histories.

特定技巧與能力。

And in fact they result in a wonderful

而這樣的結果導致

differentiation in humankind,

了人類個體間令人驚奇的差異，

in the way that, in fact, no two of us

事實上，沒有兩個人

are quite alike.

會很相像。

Every one of us has a different set of acquired skills and abilities

我們每一個人由於需要不同的彈性與適應力,因此需要不同的技能，

that all derive out of the plasticity,

而這些技能都來自於這個

the adaptability of this really remarkable adaptive machine.

可塑性極高的機器。

In an adult brain of course we've built up

在一個成人的大腦中，已經建立一個大型的

a large repertoire of mastered skills and abilities

技能資料庫，我們可以從記憶中

that we can perform more or less automatically from memory,

自動提取一些技能，使我們成為有行為，動作以及

and that define us as acting, moving, thinking creatures.

思考能力的生物。

Now we study this,

目前我們研究這方面的議題，

as the nerdy, laboratory, university-based scientists that we are,

我們主要是大學實驗室的研究者所組成，

by engaging the brains

藉由了解地球上

of animals like rats, or monkeys,

某些特殊的

or of this particularly curious creature --

小動物的大腦，例如老鼠，猴子，

one of the more bizarre forms of life on earth --

或者此類具有好奇心的動物，

to engage them in learning new skills and abilities.

促使牠們學習新的技能。

And we try to track the changes that occur

而現在我們嘗試追蹤並觀察當

as the new skill or ability is acquired.

新技巧或能力形成時，這些小動物大腦產生的變化。

In fact we do this in individuals

事實上，我們針對不同年齡層，

of any age, in these different species --

以及不同的種族的個體進行此項追蹤研究。

that is to say from infancies,

也就是從嬰兒，

infancy up to adulthood and old age.

成年到老年。

So we might engage a rat, for example,

因此我們會觀察當一隻老鼠學習新的技能時，

to acquire a new skill or ability

會產生何種改變，

that might involve the rat using its paw

例如:當牠學習用爪子做一個特殊的抓取動作時，大腦的變化。

to master particular manual grasp behaviors

就好像我們會去注意幼童的能力，

just like we might examine a child

如他們學習某些小技巧

and their ability to acquire the sub-skills,

或者達成某種事物時

or the general overall skill of accomplishing something

採用的一般能力，

like mastering the ability to read.

例如精熟閱讀的能力。

Or you might look in an older individual

亦或許你會看到個老人，

who has mastered a complex set of abilities

有某一方面

that might relate to reading musical notation

精熟的能力，

or performing the mechanical acts of performance

例如：閱讀樂譜

that apply to musical performance.

或操作樂器。

From these studies we defined two great epochs

從這些研究，我們可以確立

of the plastic history of the brain.

兩個有關大腦可塑性歷史事件。

The first great epoch is commonly called the "Critical Period."

第一個重要的時期通常被稱為「關鍵期」。

And that is the period in which the brain is setting up

而那也正是大腦正初始化設置的時期，

in its initial form its basic processing machinery.

大腦的基本運作模式形成的時期。

This is actually a period of dramatic change

這實在是個戲劇性的改變，

in which it doesn't take learning, per se, to drive

而這樣的改變不需要學習，相同的，

the initial differentiation of the machinery of the brain.

驅使大腦進行不同的初始設定，也是不需要學習。

All it takes for example in the sound domain,

以聲音為例，你需要做的,

is exposure to sound.

就是讓自己持續接觸聲音, 實際上，

And the brain actually is at the mercy

此時大腦就在這樣的

of the sound environment in which it is reared.

聲音環境下成長。

So for example I can rear an animal

也就是說，我可以模擬ㄧ個無意義，

in an environment in which there is meaningless dumb sound,

吵雜的聲音環境，

a repertoire of sound that I make up,

在這樣的環境下飼養動物。

that I make, just by exposure, artificially important

藉由人為的方式，創造出讓動物

to the animal and its young brain.

與它新生的大腦覺得重要的聲音。

And what I see is that the animal's brain sets up

而我認為動物的大腦能夠在牠有限的處理能量內，

its initial processing of that sound

以有組織有次序的方式

in a form that's idealized, within the limits of its processing achievements

表徵這個聲音刺激，

to represent it in an organized and orderly way.

並以理想的方式初始化對這聲音的處理。

The sound doesn't have to be valuable to the animal:

然而，這樣的聲音並不需要是對動物有價值的。

I could raise the animal in something that could be hypothetically valuable,

我也可以利用某些假設是有價值的事物

like the sounds that simulate

來飼養動物，例如模擬

the sounds of a native language of a child.

一個幼童的母語可能的發音。

And I see the brain actually develop a processor that is specialized --

並且可以看到大腦真的會發展特定的處理模式，來處理這一連串複雜的聲音。

specialized for that complex array, a repertoire of sounds.

專為處理這些複雜聲音的特定處理模式。

It actually exaggerates their separateness of representation,

實際上，藉由多維度神經的表徵方式，它會放大呈現

in multi-dimensional neuronal representational terms.

這些聲音表徵上的差異。

Or I can expose the animal to a completely meaningless and destructive sound.

或者，我也可以使動物暴露在完全無意義，且有害的聲音環境之下。

I can raise an animal under conditions

我可以採取像扶養嬰兒

that would be equivalent to raising a baby

一樣的方式來飼養動物。

under a moderately loud ceiling fan,

或是以連續的方式呈現聲音

in the presence of continuous noise.

例如像風扇持續，適當音量的聲音。

And when I do that I actually specialize the brain

而當我這麼做的時候，事實上我正在訓練大腦，

to be a master processor for that meaningless sound.

使它轉變成處理這個無意義聲音的處理器。

And I frustrate its ability

這麼做的結果，會讓我對大腦表徵

to represent any meaningful sound as a consequence.

任何有意義聲音的能力感到失望。

Such things in the early history of babies

諸如此類的情況，會發生在

occur in real babies.

新生嬰兒的早期階段。

And they account for, for example

而這些能力是負責重要的功能的，

the beautiful evolution of a language-specific processor

例如在每個正常發展的小孩身上，

in every normally developing baby.

能夠處理特定語言的能力。

And so they also account for

然而這些能力是否也與某些

development of defective processing

具有先天缺陷的幼童族群，

in a substantial population of children

長大之後在

who are more limited, as a consequence,

語言能力發展上受限的

in their language abilities at an older age.

原因有關呢?

Now in this early period of plasticity

在大腦具有可塑性的初期，

the brain actually changes outside of a learning context.

大腦實際上是隨著外在學習情境而改變的。

I don't have to be paying attention to what I hear.

我不需要注意我聽到的是什麼。

The input doesn't really have to be meaningful.

而這些輸入的訊息也不需要具有什麼意義。

I don't have to be in a behavioral context.

也不需要在一個有行為的情境。

This is required so the brain sets up it's processing

這是必須的，如此一來，

so that it can act differentially,

大腦才能設定它獨特的處理程序，

so that it can act selectively,

也可以選擇性的執行各項動作，

so that the creature that wears it, that carries it,

擁有這樣大腦的生物，才能夠以

can begin to operate on it in a selective way.

因應不同需求，選擇合適的動作。

In the next great epoch of life, which applies for most of life,

第二個重要的關鍵時期，

the brain is actually refining its machinery

是大部分生活中常做的事，

as it masters a wide repertoire of skills and abilities.

就是大腦會提升執行各式各樣不同技能的熟悉度。

And in this epoch,

這個階段是從生命一開始，

which extends from late in the first year of life to death;

一直到死亡。

it's actually doing this under behavioral control.

而且這個動作的執行，是在個體行為控制的情況下發生的。

And that's another way of saying

這是另一種解釋方式，

the brain has strategies that define

來說明大腦有自己的策略去定義

the significance of the input to the brain.

輸入刺激的不同重要程度。

And it's focusing on skill after skill,

而它的重點是特定注意力控制下，

or ability after ability,

大腦如何去定義

under specific attentional control.

一個接著一個的技能。

It's a function of whether a goal in a behavior is achieved

這個功能關注的是，執行某些動作後，目標能否達成。

or whether the individual is rewarded in the behavior.

或者個體是否會因為這個行為而得到獎賞。

This is actually very powerful.

而這樣的特性是非常有威力的。

This lifelong capacity for plasticity, for brain change,

大腦的可改變性，或者說可塑性，其實是終身的能力，

is powerfully expressed.

會是強而有力被呈現出來。

It is the basis of our real differentiation,

這也是人類不同個體具有

one individual from another.

差異的基本原因。

You can look down in the brain of an animal

你可以注視某一個正進行某種

that's engaged in a specific skill,

特定能力養成的動物大腦裡，

and you can witness or document this change on a variety of levels.

並且可以目睹或是紀錄大腦中不同層次的改變。

So here is a very simple experiment.

有一個非常簡單的實驗。

It was actually conducted about five years ago

事實上，這是大概五年前，位於馬賽的

in collaboration with scientists from the University of Provence

普羅旺斯大學的一群科學家

in Marseilles.

所進行的一項實驗。

It's a very simple experiment where a monkey has been trained

這是個很簡單的實驗，

in a task that involves it manipulating a tool

在實驗中猴子被

that's equivalent in its difficulty

訓練去操作一個工具，

to a child learning to manipulate or handle a spoon.

難度相當於要幼童去握湯匙。

The monkey actually mastered the task

在大概700次的練習之後，

in about 700 practice tries.

猴子可以熟練的完成這個動作。

So in the beginning the monkey could not perform this task at all.

而一開始猴子是完全無法執行這個任務的。

It had a success rate of about one in eight tries.

剛開始成功機率大概是八分之一。

Those tries were elaborate.

這些練習使牠的動作更加熟練。

Each attempt was substantially different from the other.

每一次的嘗試對猴子來說，實際上都是不同的動作。

But the monkey gradually developed a strategy.

但猴子逐漸發展出自己的策略。

And 700 or so tries later

歷經700次以上的練習後，猴子可以完美無瑕的執行此動作，

the monkey is performing it flawlessly -- never fails.

不會有任何的失誤。

He's successful in his retrieval of food with this tool every time.

每次都可以用這個工具成功的取回食物。

At this point the task is being performed

此時，這個任務已經成為一個

in a beautifully stereotyped way:

完美的動作範本。

very beautifully regulated and highly repeated, trial to trial.

藉由一次又一次的重複練習，猴子可以調整這個動作，使動作達到完美。

We can look down in the brain of the monkey.

一開始，我們可以觀察猴子的大腦。

And we see that it's distorted.

而我們可以看到它是紊亂的。

We can track these changes, and have tracked these changes

我們隨著時間的經過，

in many such behaviors across time.

在許多諸如此類的行為中追蹤這些變化。

And here we see the distortion

而這裡我們可以看到猴子手掌中的皮膚表面圖像，

reflected in the map of the skin surfaces of the hand of the monkey.

反映出來的紊亂。

Now this is a map, down in the surface of the brain,

此時，圖樣連結到大腦表面，我們透過這個精密的實驗，

in which, in a very elaborate experiment we've reconstructed the responses,

重新建立了大腦各區的反應，

location by location,

這些反應精密的對應到

in a highly detailed response mapping of the responses of its neurons.

產生反射的神經部位。

We see here a reconstruction of how

在這裡我們可以看到大腦裡面，

the hand is represented in the brain.

手的各動作是如何被重新表徵。

We've actually distorted the map by the exercise.

事實上，我們是透過練習，來使這個圖樣變得不一樣。

And that is indicated in the pink. We have a couple fingertip surfaces that are larger.

如粉紅部位所示，你會發現有幾個指尖會比較大。

These are the surfaces the monkey is using to manipulate the tool.

這些部分是猴子用來操作這個工作的表面皮膚對應區。

If we look at the selectivity of responses

假如我們看到猴子的大腦皮層中，

in the cortex of the monkey,

對應這些動作的區域有反應，

we see that the monkey has actually changed the filter characteristics

我們可以看到猴子正利用從指尖皮膚

which represents input from the skin