in this baby's mind?

藏什麼玄機?

If you'd asked people this 30 years ago,

若你在三十年前問這個問題，

most people, including psychologists,

大多數的人，包括心理專家在內，

would have said that this baby was irrational,

會說，這個嬰兒愛哭鬧、

illogical, egocentric --

不通情理、自我中心──

that he couldn't take the perspective of another person

他不能理解其他人的觀點

or understand cause and effect.

或不了解因果關係。

In the last 20 years,

在過去的20年裡，

developmental science has completely overturned that picture.

發展科學已完全顛覆了原有的見解。

So in some ways,

就某方面而言，

we think that this baby's thinking

我們認為，寶寶的思考

is like the thinking of the most brilliant scientists.

像是頂尖聰明的科學家的思考。

Let me give you just one example of this.

讓我給你們舉個例子。

One thing that this baby could be thinking about,

這寶寶可能思考的、

that could be going on in his mind,

在他們腦內打轉的一件事，

is trying to figure out

是試著理解

what's going on in the mind of that other baby.

其他的寶寶在想什麼。

After all, one of the things that's hardest for all of us to do

畢竟，對我們所有人而言，超難的任務之一是

is to figure out what other people are thinking and feeling.

去弄清楚、摸明白別人正在想什麼和其感受。

And maybe the hardest thing of all

也許所有之中最難的是

is to figure out that what other people think and feel

去理解別人的思維和感受

isn't actually exactly like what we think and feel.

和我們自身的思考和感受是十分不同的。

Anyone who's followed politics can testify

對政治權術熱衷的人能證實

to how hard that is for some people to get.

對某些人而這有多麼的困難。

We wanted to know

我們想知道

if babies and young children

若寶寶和幼兒

could understand this really profound thing about other people.

能理解其他人內在深層的想法。

Now the question is: How could we ask them?

則問題是：我們要如何問他們?

Babies, after all, can't talk,

寶寶畢竟不會說話，

and if you ask a three year-old

若你要一個三歲的幼兒

to tell you what he thinks,

告訴你他的想法，

what you'll get is a beautiful stream of consciousness monologue

你會得到一串極妙的意識流獨白，

about ponies and birthdays and things like that.

有關小馬、生日這一類的事情。

So how do we actually ask them the question?

那麼我們如何來提問呢?

Well it turns out that the secret was broccoli.

秘密就在綠花椰。

What we did -- Betty Rapacholi, who was one of my students, and I --

我和貝蒂(Betty Rapacholi)，貝蒂是我的一個學生，

was actually to give the babies two bowls of food:

會給寶寶兩碗食物：

one bowl of raw broccoli

一碗是生綠花椰

and one bowl of delicious goldfish crackers.

一碗是美味的金魚燒薄脆餅。

Now all of the babies, even in Berkley,

全部的寶寶，即使是在伯克萊，

like the crackers and don't like the raw broccoli.

都喜歡金魚燒薄脆餅而不喜歡生綠花椰。

(Laughter)

(笑)

But then what Betty did

可是貝蒂接著

was to take a little taste of food from each bowl.

會嚐點每一個碗中的食物。

And she would act as if she liked it or she didn't.

她會假裝喜歡或不喜歡。

So half the time, she acted

大半的時候，她假裝

as if she liked the crackers and didn't like the broccoli --

喜歡金魚燒餅而不喜歡生綠花椰--

just like a baby and any other sane person.

就像寶寶和其他腦袋清楚的人。

But half the time,

但另一半的時間，

what she would do is take a little bit of the broccoli

她會品嚐一點生綠花椰，

and go, "Mmmmm, broccoli.

並說：「嗯，嗯，嗯，嗯，綠花椰耶。

I tasted the broccoli. Mmmmm."

我嚐嚐綠花椰，嗯，嗯，嗯，嗯。」

And then she would take a little bit of the crackers,

然後她試點薄餅，

and she'd go, "Eww, yuck, crackers.

並說，「噁，難吃!薄餅。

I tasted the crackers. Eww, yuck."

我嚐嚐看薄餅。噁，難吃!」

So she'd act as if what she wanted

所以她假裝她要的東西

was just the opposite of what the babies wanted.

正好與寶寶要的相反。

We did this with 15 and 18 month-old babies.

我們對15個月至18個月大的寶寶做這項測試。

And then she would simply put her hand out and say,

接著她會直接伸出她的手並說：

"Can you give me some?"

「可以給我一些嗎?」

So the question is: What would the baby give her,

那麼問題來了：寶寶會給她什麼呢?

what they liked or what she liked?

是他們自身喜歡的或是她喜歡的呢?

And the remarkable thing was that 18 month-old babies,

驚人的是，18個月大的寶寶

just barely walking and talking,

剛剛會走、勉強會說，

would give her the crackers if she liked the crackers,

會給她薄餅，若她喜歡薄餅的話

but they would give her the broccoli if she liked the broccoli.

但若她喜歡的話，他們會給她綠花椰。

On the other hand,

另一方面，

15 month-olds would stare at her for a long time

15個月大的寶寶會盯著她一段時間

if she acted as if she liked the broccoli,

若她表現出喜歡綠花椰，

like they couldn't figure this out.

他們會無法理解。

But then after they stared for a long time,

但在他們盯了一陣子之後，

they would just give her the crackers,

他們還是會給她薄餅,

what they thought everybody must like.

他們認為人人必定喜歡。

So there are two really remarkable things about this.

所以由這可看出兩件值得注意的事：

The first one is that these little 18 month-old babies

第一個是這些18個月大的寶寶

have already discovered

已發現了

this really profound fact about human nature,

人性深處的事實──

that we don't always want the same thing.

我們不總是想要相同的東西。

And what's more, they felt that they should actually do things

況且，他們覺得他們確實該做些什麼

to help other people get what they wanted.

去幫其他人得到他們想要的。

Even more remarkably though,

甚而更非同小可的是，

the fact that 15 month-olds didn't do this

15個月大的寶寶沒這麼做的事實

suggests that these 18 month-olds had learned

暗示這些18個月大的寶寶已習得

this deep, profound fact about human nature

這極深處的人性真相

in the three months from when they were 15 months old.

在三個月內；在他們還是15個月大時。

So children both know more and learn more

所以孩子知道的多，也學的多,

than we ever would have thought.

超過我們對他們的認知。

And this is just one of hundreds and hundreds of studies over the last 20 years

而這只是20年來數以千百計的研究之中的一例，

that's actually demonstrated it.

能確切證實這一點。

The question you might ask though is:

你也許想問的是：

Why do children learn so much?

為何小孩學得這麼多呢?

And how is it possible for them to learn so much

他們怎麼可能就在瞬間之轉

in such a short time?

學這麼多呢?

I mean, after all, if you look at babies superficially,

我是指，若你單視寶寶的外表，

they seem pretty useless.

他們似乎相當沒用。

And actually in many ways, they're worse than useless,

而且確實在很多時候，他們何止是弱不禁風，

because we have to put so much time and energy

因而我們必須投入大量的時間和精力

into just keeping them alive.

幫他們維持生存。

But if we turn to evolution

但若我們轉向演化

for an answer to this puzzle

尋求謎題──

of why we spend so much time

為何我們花這麼大量的時間

taking care of useless babies,

照顧這些幫不上忙的寶寶──的解答。

it turns out that there's actually an answer.

原來是，確有其答案。

If we look across many, many different species of animals,

若我們放眼各種形形色色的動物，

not just us primates,

不只是靈長類

but also including other mammals, birds,

而是也包括其他哺乳類、鳥類,

even marsupials

甚至是有袋動物

like kangaroos and wombats,

像袋鼠和毛鼻袋熊

it turns out that there's a relationship

結果是關聯到

between how long a childhood a species has

一個物種的幼兒時期有多長

and how big their brains are compared to their bodies

和他們的腦相較其身體有多大

and how smart and flexible they are.

及他們多聰明和靈活度。

And sort of the posterbirds for this idea are the birds up there.

符合這想法的招牌鳥就在這兒。

On one side

一面是

is a New Caledonian crow.

一隻新克里當尼亞(the New Caledonian)烏鴉。

And crows and other corvidae, ravens, rooks and so forth,

烏鴉和其他渡鴉、兀鼻烏鴉、白嘴鴉等等

are incredibly smart birds.

是聰明得不得了的鳥。

They're as smart as chimpanzees in some respects.

在方某些方面，牠們像黑猩猩一樣的聰明。

And this is a bird on the cover of science

這是出現在科學雜誌封面的鳥類，

who's learned how to use a tool to get food.

已習得使用工具來獲得食物。

On the other hand,

在另一面

we have our friend the domestic chicken.

是人類的朋友，家養雞。

And chickens and ducks and geese and turkeys

而雞、鴨、鵝和火雞

are basically as dumb as dumps.

根本是笨到不行。

So they're very, very good at pecking for grain,

所以他們非常非常在行啄食穀物，

and they're not much good at doing anything else.

對其他的可就一竅不通了。

Well it turns out that the babies,

原來那些寶寶,

the New Caledonian crow babies, are fledglings.

新克里當尼亞(the New Caledonian)幼鳥正在學飛。

They depend on their moms

牠們依賴母鳥

to drop worms in their little open mouths

放入一條條的小蟲到牠們微開的嘴巴

for as long as two years,

長達兩年的時間，

which is a really long time in the life of a bird.

在鳥的一生中，這段時間是相當長的。

Whereas the chickens are actually mature

而雞長大成熟其實

within a couple of months.

在數個月內長。

So childhood is the reason

所以幼兒時期可作為理由

why the crows end up on the cover of Science

解釋為何烏鴉最後成為『科學』雜誌的封面,

and the chickens end up in the soup pot.

而雞最終淪落到湯鍋裏。

There's something about that long childhood

那漫長的幼兒時期有某種重要的東西

that seems to be connected

似乎是與

to knowledge and learning.

知識和學習有關。

Well what kind of explanation could we have for this?

對這點我們有什麼要說的呢？

Well some animals, like the chicken,

嗯，某些動物，像是雞

seem to be beautifully suited

似乎是極為適合

to doing just one thing very well.

做某一件事且相當稱合。

So they seem to be beautifully suited

所以牠們似乎是極為適合

to pecking grain in one environment.

在某種環境啄食穀物。

Other creatures, like the crows,

其他生物，像是烏鴉

aren't very good at doing anything in particular,

不特出善於做某件事，

but they're extremely good

但牠們極為擅長

at learning about laws of different environments.

習得不同環境的法則。

And of course, we human beings

而當然，我們人類

are way out on the end of the distribution like the crows.

分配的結果，遠遠勝出烏鴉。

We have bigger brains relative to our bodies

相對我們的身體，我們有較大的腦，

by far than any other animal.

迄今比起其他任何動物而言。

We're smarter, we're more flexible,

我們更聰明、我們更懂得變通、

we can learn more,

我們能學得更多、

we survive in more different environments,

我們可在更多各種不同的環境下存活,

we migrated to cover the world and even go to outer space.

我們遷徙遍佈世界各地；甚至還出走至外太空。

And our babies and children are dependent on us

而我們的寶寶和孩子依賴我們

for much longer than the babies of any other species.

為期又更長久，相較其他的物種來說。

My son is 23.

我的兒子23歲了

(Laughter)

(笑)

And at least until they're 23,

至少到了23歲,

we're still popping those worms

我們仍迅速地把一條條的蟲子

into those little open mouths.

放入一張張微開的嘴巴。

All right, why would we see this correlation?

沒錯，為何我們會視其有密切關係呢?

Well an idea is that that strategy, that learning strategy,

一個想法──策略，學習策略

is an extremely powerful, great strategy for getting on in the world,

是一個高效能、重要的策略，以便在這世界中生存下來，

but it has one big disadvantage.

但卻有一大缺失。

And that one big disadvantage

那一個大缺失是

is that, until you actually do all that learning,

在你確實地完成所有的學習之前，

you're going to be helpless.

你將無法照顧自己。

So you don't want to have the mastodon charging at you

所以你不要等巨象(mastodon)衝向你

and be saying to yourself,

才對自己說：

"A slingshot or maybe a spear might work. Which would actually be better?"

「一副彈弓或者一把標槍也許有用。哪一個會比較好?」

You want to know all that

你得徹底了解一切,

before the mastodons actually show up.

在巨象出現之前。

And the way the evolutions seems to have solved that problem

演化似乎已解決那個問題，方法是

is with a kind of division of labor.

運用一種工作分配。

So the idea is that we have this early period when we're completely protected.

可以說，這概念是人類有完全受保護的這個早期階段；

We don't have to do anything. All we have to do is learn.

我們不必做任何事，我們所要做的是學習而已。

And then as adults,

那麼身為成人，

we can take all those things that we learned when we were babies and children

我們可以採取在我們還是幼童時期所學的一切

and actually put them to work to do things out there in the world.

實際付諸實行並且為這世界做點什麼。

So one way of thinking about it

這麼想吧!

is that babies and young children

寶寶和幼兒

are like the research and development division of the human species.

就像是人種的研發部門。

So they're the protected blue sky guys

所以他們是襁褓中純真的小傢伙,

who just have to go out and learn and have good ideas,

他們只是必須走出來並學習，產生好點子

and we're production and marketing.

而我們則是生產和行銷部門。

We have to take all those ideas

我們必須採用所有點子,

that we learned when we were children

這些點子是我們還是小孩子時所學習的,

and actually put them to use.

並確實地落實這些想法。

Another way of thinking about it

這麼想也行!

is instead of thinking of babies and children

與其認為寶寶和孩童

as being like defective grownups,

像是弱勢的成人,

we should think about them

我們應該將他們想成

as being a different developmental stage of the same species --

是相同物種而各不相同的發展階段──

kind of like caterpillars and butterflies --

有點像是毛毛蟲和蝴蝶

except that they're actually the brilliant butterflies

除了他們確實是閃亮的蝴蝶,

who are flitting around the garden and exploring,

在花園裡飛來飛去和探索，

and we're the caterpillars

而我們是毛毛蟲,

who are inching along our narrow, grownup, adult path.

緩緩移向狹隘的成長、成人路徑。

If this is true, if these babies are designed to learn --

如果這是真的、如果這些寶寶是被設計來學習的──

and this evolutionary story would say children are for learning,

演化的故事會說，孩子是出生來學習的

that's what they're for --

那是他們與生俱來的能力──

we might expect

我們可能期待

that they would have really powerful learning mechanisms.

他們會有功能十分強大的學習機制。

And in fact, the baby's brain

而實際上，寶寶的腦

seems to be the most powerful learning computer

就像是在這星球功能最多的

on the planet.

學習電腦。

But real computers are actually getting to be a lot better.

而真正的電腦事實上漸漸愈來愈好。

And there's been a revolution

有一個大改革近來持續的在進行，

in our understanding of machine learning recently.

是針對我們所知道的機械學習。

And it all depends on the ideas of this guy,

是由這個人的點子所創造出來的,

the Reverend Thomas Bayes,

教士湯瑪士‧貝茲(Reverend Thomas Bayes),

who was a statistician and mathematician in the 18th century.

是18世紀時的一位統計學和數學家。

And essentially what Bayes did

基本上，貝茲(Bayes)所做的是

was to provide a mathematical way

提出一個數學方法

using probability theory

使用或然率理論

to characterize, describe,

以描出、描繪出

the way that scientists find out about the world.

科學家所發現關於這個世界的一切。

So what scientists do

所以科學家在做的事是

is they have a hypothesis that they think might be likely to start with.

他們提出想要著手的假說。

They go out and test it against the evidence.

他們進行測試假說、比對證據。

The evidence makes them change that hypothesis.

依測試的結果，他們改變假設。

Then they test that new hypothesis

接著又測試新的假設,

and so on and so forth.

像這樣不斷的進行下。

And what Bayes showed was a mathematical way that you could do that.

Bayes讓我們看到，你能以數學的方式來完成。

And that mathematics is at the core

數學是我們目前有的

of the best machine learning programs that we have now.

最佳機械學習程式的核心部分。

And some 10 years ago,

約十年前

I suggested that babies might be doing the same thing.

我提出嬰兒可能也會做這類事。

So if you want to know what's going on

若你要知道

underneath those beautiful brown eyes,

寶寶美麗棕色的眼內含著什麼心思,

I think it actually looks something like this.

我認為很可能就如同這一般。

This is Reverend Bayes's notebook.

這是教士貝茲的筆記。