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  • Jacob: I’m Jacob Clifford

  • Adriene: and I’m Adriene Hill and welcome to Crash Course Economics.

  • Jacob: In the last few videos weve said a lot of nice things about how competitive

  • markets allocate resources. You know, they do a pretty good job.

  • Adriene: But nobody’s perfect. Sometimes markets get it wrong. Sometimes they fail.

  • Sometimes the byproducts of production make people sick. Today we are going to talk about

  • those market failures, and how economists address them.

  • [Theme Music]

  • In 2105, a story made the rounds online about a University of Maryland professor and an

  • extra credit question: "Select whether you want 2 points or 6 points added onto your

  • final paper grade. But there’s a small catch...if more than 10% of the class selects 6 points,

  • then no one gets any points." So, what would you do?

  • The question alludes to one of the biggest problems with free markets: sometimes people

  • have a personal incentive to do something that is against the collective interests of

  • the group. Obviously, everyone wants at least some extra credit, but there is also an incentive

  • to get even more points. In this situation, the professor reported that too many people

  • chose 6 points and no one got extra credit.

  • Let's say that your local government sent a similar proposition to every household in

  • your city, “Select whether you want to pay $20 or $100 to fund the local fire department,

  • but there’s a small catch: if more than 50% of citizens choose $20 there's not going

  • to be enough money to have a fire department.”

  • This is the free rider problem. Free riders are people who benefit without paying. They

  • are not necessarily evil, let’s face it, you probably know someone that's illegally

  • downloaded Game of Thrones, but they're responding to incentives -- why pay more, if I can get it for less?

  • If too many people think like this, then we're all worse off and we're going to end up not

  • getting the things we want like fire protection or a satisfying ending to Game of Thrones.

  • So how do most cities get around the problem that some people will benefit even if they

  • don’t pay. The city doesn’t ask for money, they demand money in the form of taxes. The

  • reasoning is that fire protection is so essential that people shouldn’t be allowed to opt out.

  • Jacob: So things that are for our collective well being, like fire protection, schools,

  • and national defense are often funded by the government. When markets alone fail to provide

  • enough of these things, that's called market failures. These are often called public goods,

  • but the technical definition of a public good is anything that has two characteristics:

  • non-exclusion and non-rivalry. Non-exclusion is the idea that you can't exclude people

  • that don’t pay. For example, it's impossible to limit the benefits of national defense

  • to only people that pay their taxes. People who pay no federal taxes still get the benefit

  • of protection from bombs, and people who pay a lot of federal taxes don’t get extra protection.

  • Non-rivalry is the idea that one person’s consumption of the good doesn’t ruin it

  • for other people. So, public parks are a great example. You can use it today, I can use it

  • tomorrow; it can be shared. Ideally.

  • If a good or service meets these two criteria it's unlikely that private firms will produce

  • it, no matter how essential it is. Street lights and organizations that track and prevent the spread of

  • diseases are pretty important, and if the government doesn’t step in, we probably won’t get them.

  • Adriene: The incentive to do what's best for you, rather than what's best for everyone

  • is the root cause of something economists call the Tragedy of the Commons. This is the

  • idea that common goods that everyone has access to are often misused and exploited. It explains

  • the cause of most of our environmental problems like air pollution, deforestation, the killing

  • of endangered species, and overfishing.

  • In many places in the world, there are more fish being pulled out of rivers, lakes, and

  • oceans than are being born. This is not just bad for the fish; it’s bad for the people

  • doing the fishing. As these resources are depleted, fishermen find themselves without a job.

  • So why aren’t they conserving? Allowing fish to reproduce and generate more fish resources

  • for the future? Well, look at the incentives. If a few environmentally conscious fishermen

  • decide to give the fish time to spawn, then some other fisherman will harvest them instead.

  • If you can’t prevent other people from exploiting the resource, then you have an incentive to

  • exploit it yourself and take as much as you can, as quickly as you can.

  • But, with everyone following that logic, the finite resource gets pillaged. The Tragedy

  • of the Commons explains why fish stocks get depleted, the rainforest get cut down, and

  • why endangered species get hunted for their hides or horns. There is an entire subfield

  • of economics focused on address and solving these issues, it is called environmental economics.

  • Jacob: The problem here is that unregulated markets sometimes don’t produce the outcome

  • that society wants. Remember, sometimes markets misallocate resources because they don't have

  • the right price signals. There is no better example of this than what economists call

  • externalities. Externalities are situations when there's an external costs or external

  • benefits that accrue to other people or society as a whole. When other people are made worse

  • off that's called a negative externality. When other people are made better off

  • that's called a positive externality. Let’s go to the Thought Bubble.

  • Let’s look at a TV factory that pollutes a river with toxic chemicals. This is definitely

  • a negative externality. The factory has internal costs: it has to pay its workers, buy raw

  • materials, pay for energy; and it uses those costs to determine how many TVs to produce.

  • But there are also external costs associated with polluting the waterways, like dead fish,

  • contaminated drinking water, and people getting sick. Those external costs are paid by people

  • downstream, and they are likely to be ignored by the factory owner. The free market assumes

  • that all the costs associated with producing TVs are accounted for within the price of

  • those TVs, but, in this case, the market is wrong. The end result is a market failure

  • because the factory is producing too many TVs.

  • As for positive externalities. Think of education. More education is great for you.

  • You'll likely generate more income and it makes you more interesting to talk to at parties.

  • But there are also external benefits of your education. Everyone is actually made better off.

  • With more education you're more likely be a positive and productive member of society.

  • And if you earn a higher income, that means more tax revenue.

  • Now in both cases, negative and positive externalities, economists often look to the government to

  • step in and solve the problem. For example, the government could tax the TV factory or

  • subsidize education. In fact, externalities are the justification for almost everything

  • the government does. When politicians, tax cigarettes, fund education, subsidize fuel

  • efficient cars, or regulate financial markets, it's because they are convinced that free

  • markets alone are not adjusting for externalities.

  • Adriene: Thanks Thought Bubble. Weve tried to explain the problem of externalities, now

  • let’s talk about the solutions. When the government tries to fix externalities they

  • can use regulatory policies or market-based policies.

  • Regulatory policies are simply rules established by government decree. Some people complain

  • about regulation. They say, “the government can’t tell me what to do.” But let's be

  • honest, it can. The government also spends a ton of time and money telling you what you

  • can’t do. Don’t drive too fast. Don’t build a house in Yellowstone. Don’t kill anybody.

  • It seems like the government probably should regulate some stuff. The question is, “how

  • much should they regulate?” Even people who adamantly oppose government regulation

  • probably agree that nuclear weapons and nerve gas shouldn't be on the shelves at Target.

  • Let’s go back to the TV factory example. To help solve the pollution externality, the

  • government could ban the use of certain types of chemicals or set a production quota to

  • limit the production of TVs or regulate what can be dumped in the river. In the US, the

  • Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has pushed for laws to control pollution, and

  • these regulations have worked.

  • Regulation can also create positive externalities. In some cases, the external benefits are perceived

  • to be so high that the government essentially takes over the market. Consider education.

  • Most countries have compulsory education which requires citizens to be educated up to a specific

  • age and the government pays for schools through taxes.

  • If the government didn’t get involved, all education would be provided by private schools

  • that would charge tuition; there might not be enough affordable schools to educate young

  • people. The government funds education because they think that the external benefits, like

  • literate, well-informed, erudite citizens, are so high it's worth forcing everyone to pay.

  • Jacob: Another way that governments try to solve externalities is with market-based policies.

  • These are policies designed to manipulate markets, prices, and incentives to correct

  • for market failures. The best examples are taxes and subsidies. A tax on the production

  • of TVs or on the chemicals the factory is using will decrease production and limit pollution.

  • Federal grants that help subsidize college education will increase the amount of education people buy.

  • In general, economists tend to prefer market-based policies. Take cigarettes. Cigarettes generate

  • high external costs on society. There's second hand smoke and there's higher healthcare costs

  • for everyone, due to smoking related illnesses.

  • The government could force cigarettes companies to produce less, or just shut them down entirely,

  • but instead they tax cigarettes. The tax drives up the price, consumers buy fewer cigarettes,

  • and this addresses the negative externality. Now, this market-based approach has one key

  • advantage over the regulatory approach. Instead of spending money on enforcing regulations,

  • the government is earning tax revenue that can be used for purposes. In real life, though,

  • governments often use both policies. In the US, the government taxes cigarette producers

  • and regulates where people can smoke. It also restricts how tobacco companies can advertise,

  • and supports anti-smoking campaigns designed to convince people to quit smoking.

  • Seriously, you should stop smoking.

  • Market-based approaches to reduce negative externalities are also used to fight climate

  • change. Many economists argue that taxes on carbon-based fuels like coal, oil, and gas

  • are a more effective way to deal with air pollution.

  • Adriene: One oft-discussed market-based policy is emissions trading orcap and trade.”

  • The government issues pollution permits and if your factory doesn’t hold one of those

  • permits, it can’t pollute. But companies can buy or sell those permits.

  • This sets up incentives to go green: if you can produce without pollution, you can make

  • money by selling your permits. But if you operate a dirty plant, you have to pay for

  • those extra permits. As controversial as cap and trade can be among American politicians,

  • it’s interesting to note that it's already been used successfully in the US.

  • A cap and trade program to reduce acid rain pollution -- it worked! It cut sulfur dioxide

  • emissions. According to a 2003 report from the Office of Management and Budget, “the

  • Acid Rain Program accounted for the largest quantified human health benefits of any major

  • federal regulatory program implemented in the last 10 years, with benefits exceeding

  • costs by more than 40:1.”

  • Remember that extra credit question? What if the world’s largest economies were given

  • a similar proposition: “Select whether you want to decrease your pollution by 5% or 30%,

  • with a small catch; if more than 50% of counties choose only 5% then climate change will make Earth unlivable."

  • That simplifies the issue, but it does illustrate why it's so hard to address climate change.

  • Individual countries might work to reduce carbon dioxide emissions, but they can’t

  • prevent other countries from polluting. It’s the Tragedy of the Commons.

  • In an unregulated global economy, where producers want to make products as cheaply as possible,

  • there's an incentive to ignore international environment to get ahead. Global issues like

  • climate change, human rights abuses, and nuclear proliferation can't be effectively addressed

  • if countries don’t work together. But that requires a lot of trust and a lot of commitment.

  • Jacob: So markets aren't perfect. There are many cases when the government should get

  • involved, and there's even some situations when the government should just take control.

  • Adriene: The question isn’t “which is better: free markets or government?” The

  • question ishow can they work together to make our lives better?”

  • Thanks for watching, well see you next week.

  • Crash Course Economics is made with the help of all these fine people. You can support

  • Crash Course at Patreon, a voluntary subscription service where your support helps keep Crash

  • Course free for everyone, forever. And you get great rewards. Thanks for watching, and DFTBA!

Jacob: I’m Jacob Clifford

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市場失靈、稅收和補貼。經濟學速成班#21 (Market Failures, Taxes, and Subsidies: Crash Course Economics #21)

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    Jane 發佈於 2021 年 01 月 14 日
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