It's bigger.

它的規模更大

We didn't really realize that until 1914,

但直到 1914 年，當最後一隻旅鴿 ——

when the last passenger pigeon, a female named Martha,

一隻名叫瑪莎的母鳥 —— 在辛辛那提動物園中去世時，

died at the Cincinnati zoo.

我們才瞭解到這份震撼

This had been the most abundant bird in the world

牠們曾是世界上數量最多的鳥類

that'd been in North America for six million years.

存活於北美洲六百萬年

Suddenly it wasn't here at all.

突然間就消失了

Flocks that were a mile wide and 400 miles long

旅鴿鳥群曾達 1 英里寬並綿延 400 英里

used to darken the sun.

甚至可以遮蔽太陽

Aldo Leopold said this was a biological storm,

阿爾多．李奧帕德曾如此形容：

a feathered tempest.

這是一場生物風暴、一場飛羽旋風

And indeed it was a keystone species

牠們也確實是關鍵物種

that enriched the entire eastern deciduous forest,

盤踞美東的落葉林

from the Mississippi to the Atlantic,

從密西西比河到大西洋

from Canada down to the Gulf.

從加拿大一路到墨西哥灣

But it went from five billion birds to zero in just a couple decades.

但從五十億隻歸零 卻只花了數十年的時間

What happened?

發生什麼事呢？

Well, commercial hunting happened.

嗯，發生了商業性的獵殺

These birds were hunted for meat that was sold by the ton,

這種鳥類被獵殺並成噸地賣入肉品市場

and it was easy to do because when those big flocks

牠們成群的飛行，讓獵殺易如反掌

came down to the ground, they were so dense

當牠們接近地面時，數百名獵人

that hundreds of hunters and netters could show up

可以輕而易舉地從如此密集的鳥群中

and slaughter them by the tens of thousands.

獵殺到成千上萬的獵物

It was the cheapest source of protein in America.

牠們曾是美國最廉價的蛋白質來源

By the end of the century, there was nothing left

到 19 世紀末葉，牠們就從地球上消失了

but these beautiful skins in museum specimen drawers.

只剩披蓋華羽的標本躺在博物館中

There's an upside to the story.

但這故事仍有光明的一面

This made people realize that the same thing

這讓人類意識到同樣的狀況

was about to happen to the American bison,

也將發生在美洲水牛身上

and so these birds saved the buffalos.

所以這些鳥的滅絕救了水牛

But a lot of other animals weren't saved.

但仍有許多我們保護不及的動物

The Carolina parakeet was a parrot that lit up backyards everywhere.

卡羅萊納長尾鸚鵡 曾是點亮每家後院的嬌客

It was hunted to death for its feathers.

卻因羽毛需求而被獵殺殆盡

There was a bird that people liked on the East Coast called the heath hen.

曾經有種叫北美松雞的鳥被東岸人喜愛

It was loved. They tried to protect it. It died anyway.

因為牠令人喜歡，人們試圖保護牠 但牠們最終還是滅絕了

A local newspaper spelled out, "There is no survivor,

地方報紙曾說：「沒有生還，也沒有未來，

there is no future, there is no life to be recreated in this form ever again."

世界再也沒辦法創造出這樣的生命。」

There's a sense of deep tragedy that goes with these things,

當物種消失時，總是有種深沈的哀傷蔓延

and it happened to lots of birds that people loved.

許多受人喜愛的鳥類已遭此命運

It happened to lots of mammals.

同樣狀況也發生在哺乳動物身上

Another keystone species is a famous animal

另一個關鍵物種是有名的動物

called the European aurochs.

歐洲野牛

There was sort of a movie made about it recently.

最近甚至有部關於牠們的電影

And the aurochs was like the bison.

這些野牛很像水牛

This was an animal that basically kept the forest

基本上，這種動物的生態功能

mixed with grasslands across the entire Europe and Asian continent,

使得歐亞大陸的森林之間保有草原

from Spain to Korea.

牠們分佈從西班牙到韓國

The documentation of this animal goes back

而人類關於這種動物的記載

to the Lascaux cave paintings.

可以回溯到拉斯科岩洞畫的年代

The extinctions still go on.

許多動物仍陸續滅絕

There's an ibex in Spain called the bucardo.

一種分佈在西班牙，名為布卡多山羊的野山羊

It went extinct in 2000.

於 2000 年滅絕

There was a marvelous animal, a marsupial wolf

也有一些令人驚嘆的物種，像是袋狼

called the thylacine in Tasmania, south of Australia,

牠們在澳洲的塔斯馬尼亞州

called the Tasmanian tiger.

又稱塔斯馬尼亞狼或塔斯馬尼亞虎

It was hunted until there were just a few left to die in zoos.

牠們也逃不過獵殺，最後幾隻在動物園中死去

A little bit of film was shot.

這是一小段影片

Sorrow, anger, mourning.

沈重、憤怒、悲傷

Don't mourn. Organize.

但別悲傷，振作起來

What if you could find out that, using the DNA in museum specimens,

如果你發現利用博物館標本

fossils maybe up to 200,000 years old

或是 20 萬年前化石中的 DNA

could be used to bring species back,

可以讓這些物種復活

what would you do? Where would you start?

你會怎麼做呢？ 你又會從何做起？

Well, you'd start by finding out if the biotech is really there.

你可能會先確定，生物技術是否達得到要求

I started with my wife, Ryan Phelan,

我則是從我太太萊恩．費倫那開始

who ran a biotech business called DNA Direct,

她經營一家叫 DNA Direct 的生技公司

and through her, one of her colleagues, George Church,

透過她，我認識了她同事喬治．邱奇

one of the leading genetic engineers

他也是位著迷於旅鴿的

who turned out to be also obsessed with passenger pigeons

頂尖基因工程師

and a lot of confidence

他對他所使用的方法深具信心

that methodologies he was working on

他對他所使用的方法深具信心

might actually do the deed.

並認為他可以讓物種復活

So he and Ryan organized and hosted a meeting

所以他和萊恩策劃並主持了一個會議

at the Wyss Institute in Harvard bringing together

在哈佛的維斯學院招集了一批

specialists on passenger pigeons, conservation ornithologists, bioethicists,

旅鴿專家、鳥類保育學家、生物倫理學家

and fortunately passenger pigeon DNA had already been sequenced

而且很幸運的是旅鴿的 DNA 已經被

by a molecular biologist named Beth Shapiro.

一名叫做貝絲．夏皮羅的分子生物學家完成定序

All she needed from those specimens at the Smithsonian

而她只用了保存在史密森納研究院

was a little bit of toe pad tissue,

標本中的一小塊腳部組織

because down in there is what is called ancient DNA.

因為裡面含有原始 DNA

It's DNA which is pretty badly fragmented,

DNA 已經碎裂成片段

but with good techniques now, you can basically reassemble the whole genome.

利用現在的技術，你可以重組成完整的基因序列

Then the question is, can you reassemble,

問題在於你能不能利用

with that genome, the whole bird?

基因體生出隻健全的鳥？

George Church thinks you can.

喬治．邱奇認為這可以達到

So in his book, "Regenesis," which I recommend,

在他寫的、也是我強力推薦的 «重生» 中

he has a chapter on the science of bringing back extinct species,

有一章解釋了復活滅絕物種的技術

and he has a machine called

這個機器被他稱為：

the Multiplex Automated Genome Engineering machine.

多樣化自動基因體建構機

It's kind of like an evolution machine.

這項技術和演化的機制類似

You try combinations of genes that you write

你將不同組合的基因送入細胞

at the cell level and then in organs on a chip,

從細胞層級到組織層級

and the ones that win, that you can then put

再把成功存活下來的組織

into a living organism. It'll work.

送入代理孕母體內，它就會成功

The precision of this, one of George's famous unreadable slides,

從喬治難以辨識的紀錄中

nevertheless points out that there's a level of precision here

我們可以知道這項技術的精確度

right down to the individual base pair.

達到鹼基對的層級

The passenger pigeon has 1.3 billion base pairs in its genome.

候鴿基因體包含 13 億對鹼基

So what you're getting is the capability now

所以你現在能做的是

of replacing one gene with another variation of that gene.

把一個基因用它的對偶基因取代

It's called an allele.

（譯注：這是用來解決原始基因序列上破碎、缺失的問題）

Well that's what happens in normal hybridization anyway.

這在正常的精卵結合過程中也會發生

So this is a form of synthetic hybridization of the genome

所以，我們可用和滅絕物種

of an extinct species

最接近的物種

with the genome of its closest living relative.

組合並修復滅絕物種的基因體

Now along the way, George points out that

在此過程中，喬治指出

his technology, the technology of synthetic biology,

他所使用的合成生物學技術

is currently accelerating at four times the rate of Moore's Law.

現在成長速度是莫爾定律的四倍

It's been doing that since 2005, and it's likely to continue.

這從 2005 開始，也很有可能一直延續下去

Okay, the closest living relative of the passenger pigeon

最接近旅鴿的存活物種是帶尾鴿

is the band-tailed pigeon. They're abundant. There's some around here.

他們數量龐大，在這附近也有

Genetically, the band-tailed pigeon already is

從基因層面來說，帶尾鴿幾乎是活著的旅鴿

mostly living passenger pigeon.

牠們的基因體中只有一些是帶尾鴿特有的序列

There's just some bits that are band-tailed pigeon.

牠們的基因體中只有一些是帶尾鴿特有的序列

If you replace those bits with passenger pigeon bits,

如果你將這些序列以旅鴿特有的序列取代

you've got the extinct bird back, cooing at you.

你就有一隻已經滅絕旅鴿對你咕咕叫

Now, there's work to do.

現在需要著手進行的是:

You have to figure out exactly what genes matter.

你必須分辨出哪些基因是重要的

So there's genes for the short tail in the band-tailed pigeon,

像是帶尾鴿擁有短尾的基因

genes for the long tail in the passenger pigeon,

而旅鴿則是表現長尾的基因

and so on with the red eye, peach-colored breast, flocking, and so on.

還有紅眼、桃紅色的胸部和群集行為等基因

Add them all up and the result won't be perfect.

將這些都加在一起，結果不會是完美的

But it should be be perfect enough,

但應該就近乎完美了

because nature doesn't do perfect either.

自然界中也沒有「完美」的作品

So this meeting in Boston led to three things.

所以，在波士頓的會議中決定了三件事

First off, Ryan and I decided to create a nonprofit

首先，我和萊恩創立了個非營利組織

called Revive and Restore that would push de-extinction generally

這個名為「復活與保存」的組織致力

and try to have it go in a responsible way,

以付責任的方式推動「反滅絕」

and we would push ahead with the passenger pigeon.

而我們將先從旅鴿做起

Another direct result was a young grad student named Ben Novak,

另一項結果是本．諾瓦克，一位年輕研究生

who had been obsessed with passenger pigeons since he was 14

他從 14 歲起就被旅鴿所深深著迷

and had also learned how to work with ancient DNA,

而且在學會如何操作原始 DNA 後

himself sequenced the passenger pigeon,

他利用家人和朋友的金援

using money from his family and friends.

完成了旅鴿基因體定序

We hired him full-time.

我們雇用了他

Now, this photograph I took of him last year at the Smithsonian,

這是一張去年在史密森納我幫他照的照片

he's looking down at Martha,

照片中他低頭看著瑪莎 ——

the last passenger pigeon alive.

世界上最後一隻旅鴿

So if he's successful, she won't be the last.

如果他成功的話，她就不會是最後一隻

The third result of the Boston meeting was the realization

波士頓會議的第三項結果是

that there are scientists all over the world

讓我們瞭解到世界上有許多科學家

working on various forms of de-extinction,

在進行不同型式的反滅絕

but they'd never met each other.

但他們素未謀面

And National Geographic got interested

而國家地理頻道對此感到興趣

because National Geographic has the theory that

因為他們有個想法

the last century, discovery was basically finding things,

就是上世紀的發現是為了尋找未知

and in this century, discovery is basically making things.

而這個世紀是在創造發明

De-extinction falls in that category.

而反滅絕符合此條件

So they hosted and funded this meeting. And 35 scientists,

所以他們資助並主辦了這場會議

they were conservation biologists and molecular biologists,

讓 35 位保育生物學家和分子生物學家

basically meeting to see if they had work to do together.

見面並討論合作機會

Some of these conservation biologists are pretty radical.

其中一些保育生物學家非常激進

There's three of them who are not just re-creating ancient species,

其中三人不只要讓古生物復活

they're recreating extinct ecosystems

他們更希望在北西伯利亞、荷蘭和夏威夷

in northern Siberia, in the Netherlands, and in Hawaii.

恢復已經消失的生態系統

Henri, from the Netherlands,

來自荷蘭的亨利

with a Dutch last name I won't try to pronounce,

嗯，我不會試著說他的荷文姓氏

is working on the aurochs.

在做歐洲野牛

The aurochs is the ancestor of all domestic cattle,

歐洲野牛是所有被馴養牛種的祖先

and so basically its genome is alive, it's just unevenly distributed.

所以牠的基因體還存在， 只是不平均的散佈在不同品種裡

So what they're doing is working with seven breeds

所以他們利用七個原始、強韌

of primitive, hardy-looking cattle like that Maremmana primitivo on the top there

和上圖原牛相似的品種

to rebuild, over time, with selective back-breeding,

利用篩選性的繁殖

the aurochs.

希望可以讓歐洲野牛重現

Now, re-wilding is moving faster in Korea

現在野放在韓國推展得

than it is in America,

比美國更為快速

and so the plan is, with these re-wilded areas all over Europe,

所以我們計畫將野牛引進歐洲的野放區

they will introduce the aurochs to do its old job,

讓牠們扮演原有的生態功能

its old ecological role,

牠們原本在生態系中扮演的角色

of clearing the somewhat barren, closed-canopy forest

讓原本茂密森林下的貧脊土壤

so that it has these biodiverse meadows in it.

重現多樣化的草原植被

Another amazing story

另一個令人驚歎的故事

came from Alberto Fernández-Arias.

是來自阿貝圖．費爾南斯．阿里

Alberto worked with the bucardo in Spain.

阿貝圖在西班牙研究布卡多山羊

The last bucardo was a female named Celia

最後一隻是名叫西麗亞的母羊

who was still alive, but then they captured her,

當研究員捕捉牠時牠還健在

they got a little bit of tissue from her ear,

當時他們從牠耳朵取得一小塊組織

they cryopreserved it in liquid nitrogen,

並冷凍保存於液態氮中後

released her back into the wild,

將牠野放

but a few months later, she was found dead under a fallen tree.

但數個月後發現牠被樹木壓死

They took the DNA from that ear,

他們利用牠耳朵中的 DNA

they planted it as a cloned egg in a goat,

恢復成受精卵的形式並殖入山羊

the pregnancy came to term,

當孕期結束

and a live baby bucardo was born.

活生生的布卡多山羊就出生了

It was the first de-extinction in history.

這是歷史上第一個反滅絕的實例

(Applause)

（掌聲）

It was short-lived.

但牠活的不久

Sometimes interspecies clones have respiration problems.

有時候跨種的複製會造成呼吸系統的問題

This one had a malformed lung and died after 10 minutes,

這隻肺臟發育不全的羊只存活了 10 分鐘

but Alberto was confident that

但阿貝圖對此深具信心

cloning has moved along well since then,

因為動物複製技術已有長足進步

and this will move ahead, and eventually

未來終究會更加發達

there will be a population of bucardos

他相信未來會有成群的布卡多山羊

back in the mountains in northern Spain.

重返西班牙北部的山區

Cryopreservation pioneer of great depth is Oliver Ryder.

冷凍保存的先驅奧利弗．雷德

At the San Diego zoo, his frozen zoo

在聖地牙哥動物園中

has collected the tissues from over 1,000 species

他的冰凍園區在過去 35 年內

over the last 35 years.

蒐集了超過 1 千種物種的組織

Now, when it's frozen that deep,

當冰封在低溫 ——

minus 196 degrees Celsius,

攝氏 -196 度

the cells are intact and the DNA is intact.

細胞和其中的 DNA 都可以完整保存

They're basically viable cells,

它們基本上都是能培養的細胞

so someone like Bob Lanza at Advanced Cell Technology

先進細胞科技公司的鮑勃．蘭扎

took some of that tissue from an endangered animal

從瀕臨絕種的爪哇野牛的冷凍組織中

called the Javan banteng, put it in a cow,

取了一些殖入母乳牛

the cow went to term, and what was born

當母牛孕期屆滿

was a live, healthy baby Javan banteng,

一隻健康的爪哇野牛寶寶就誕生了

who thrived and is still alive.

牠仍健在，也在持續成長中

The most exciting thing for Bob Lanza

最讓鮑博興奮的是

is the ability now to take any kind of cell

現在可將任何細胞誘導成全能幹細胞

with induced pluripotent stem cells

並將其分化成如精子、卵子

and turn it into germ cells, like sperm and eggs.

這類生殖細胞的技術

So now we go to Mike McGrew

現在我們來介紹麥克．麥格羅

who is a scientist at Roslin Institute in Scotland,

他是一位在蘇格蘭羅斯林研究所的科學家

and Mike's doing miracles with birds.

麥克在鳥類上展現奇蹟

So he'll take, say, falcon skin cells, fibroblast,

他會拿獵鷹的皮膚細胞，例如纖維母細胞

turn it into induced pluripotent stem cells.

讓它恢復成全能幹細胞

Since it's so pluripotent, it can become germ plasm.

因為它具有全能性，所以也可分化成種質

He then has a way to put the germ plasm

讓後他有種方法可以將種質

into the embryo of a chicken egg

送入雞蛋的胚胎中

so that that chicken will have, basically,

所以這隻雞將會長出

the gonads of a falcon.

獵鷹的生殖腺

You get a male and a female each of those,

當你把牠們湊成對後

and out of them comes falcons.

就可以生出獵鷹了

(Laughter)

（笑聲）

Real falcons out of slightly doctored chickens.

從改造的雞生出獵鷹

Ben Novak was the youngest scientist at the meeting.

本．諾瓦克是會議中最年輕的科學家

He showed how all of this can be put together.

他預見如何讓這些技術銜接在一起

The sequence of events: he'll put together the genomes

流程如下：他會先利用帶尾鴿

of the band-tailed pigeon and the passenger pigeon,

和旅鴿的基因體放在一起

he'll take the techniques of George Church

再利用喬治．邱奇的技術

and get passenger pigeon DNA,

修復旅鴿的 DNA

the techniques of Robert Lanza and Michael McGrew,