and move materials and products in the global containerized intermodal freight transport

system efficiently and securely. "Intermodal" indicates that the container can be moved

from one mode of transport to another without unloading and reloading the contents of the

container. Lengths of containers, which each have a unique ISO 6346 reporting mark, vary

from 8 to 56 feet and heights from 8 feet to 9 feet 6 inches. There are about 17 million

intermodal containers in the world of varying types to suit different cargoes.

For air freight the alternative and lighter IATA-defined unit load device is used. Non-container

methods of transport include bulk cargo, break bulk cargo and tank cars, tank trucks or oil

tankers used for liquids or gases.

History

The standardised steel shipping container has its origins in the 1950s when commercial

shipping operators and the United States military started developing such units. Shipping owner

Malcom McLean worked with engineer Keith Tantlinger to develop the modern intermodal container.

The logistics method employing these was named Container Express and was abbreviated ConEx.

That abbreviation evolved into a word within the American English lexicon.

ISO standards for containers were published between 1968 and 1970 by the International

Maritime Organization. These standards allow for more consistent loading, transporting,

and unloading of goods in ports throughout the world, thus saving time and resources.

The International Convention for Safe Containers is a 1972 regulation by the Inter-governmental

Maritime Consultative Organization on the safe handling and transport of containers.

It decrees that every container travelling internationally is supplied with a "CSC-Plate".

Description A typical container has doors fitted at one

end, and is made of corrugated weathering steel. Containers were originally 8-foot wide

by 8-foot high, and either a nominal 20-foot or 40-foot long. They could be stacked up

to seven units high. At each of the eight corners are castings with openings for twistlock

fasteners. The standard height is now 8 ft 6 in.

Taller units have been introduced, including "hi-cube" or "high-cube" units at 9 feet

6 inches and 10 feet 6 inches high. The United States and Canada often use longer

units at 48 ft and 53 ft. The "pallet wide" containers are about 2 inches

wider than standard containers to accommodate Euro-pallets, common in Europe. These containers

feature an internal width of 2,440 mm for easy loading of two 1,200 mm long pallets

side by side – many sea shipping providers in Europe allow these as overhangs on standard

containers are sufficient and they fit in the usual interlock spaces. Australian RACE

containers are also slightly wider to accommodate Australia Standard Pallets. Especially the

45 ft pallet-wide high-cube shortsea container has gained wider acceptance, as these containers

can replace the 13.6 m swap bodies that are common for truck transport in Europe. The

EU has started a standardization for pallet wide containerization in the European Intermodal

Loading Unit initiative. Container capacity is often expressed in twenty-foot

equivalent units. An equivalent unit is a measure of containerized cargo capacity equal

to one standard 20 ft × 8 ft container. As this is an approximate measure, the height

of the box is not considered; for example, the 9 ft 6 in high cube and the 4-foot-3-inch

half height 20-foot containers are also called one TEU. Similarly, the 45 ft containers

are also commonly designated as two TEU, although they are 45 feet and not 40 feet long. Two

TEU are equivalent to one forty-foot equivalent unit.

Swap body units use many of the same mounting fixings as Intermodal containers, but have

folding legs under their frame so that they can be moved between trucks without using

a crane. They are generally lighter in weight. The containers flex during transport.

Types

Variations on the standard container exist for use with different cargoes, including

refrigerated container units for perishable goods, tanks in a frame for bulk liquids,

open top units for top loading and collapsible versions. Containerised coal carriers, and

"bin-liners" are used in Europe. Container types include:

Collapsible ISO Gas bottle

Generator General purpose dry van for boxes, cartons,

cases, sacks, bales, pallets, drums in standard, high or half height

High cube palletwide containers for europallet compatibility

Insulated shipping container Refrigerated containers for perishable goods

Open top bulktainers for bulk minerals, heavy machinery

Open side for loading oversize pallet Platform or bolster for barrels and drums,

crates, cable drums, out of gauge cargo, machinery, and processed timber

Rolling floor for difficult-to-handle cargo Swapbody

Tank container for bulk liquids and dangerous goods

Ventilated containers for organic products requiring ventilation

Garmentainers for shipping garments on hangers Flushfolding flat-rack containers for heavy

and bulky semi-finished goods, out of gauge cargo. Empty flat-racks can be stacked or

shipped sideways in an ISO container. Specifications

Weights and dimensions of some common types of containers. Values vary slightly from manufacturer

to manufacturer. Security

Intermodal containers can be the target of break-ins and burglary when left unattended

since they often contain valuables. In these cases, a security system consisting of a motion

detector and panel can trigger a siren, strobe, or light to deter intruders. Many panels have

wireless communication so that security guards can be alerted if an alarm is triggered.

Motion detectors can be used as a security method. However, many break-ins occur by criminals

cutting through a wall of the container, so the obstructed sensor becomes useless. Tomographic

motion detectors work well in intermodal containers because they do not require a line of sight

to detect motion. The entire container is covered by a volumetric sensing mesh that

is not blocked by equipment or inventory. Tomographic motion detection is not prone

to misdetection due to dirt buildup as is the case for beams and infrared sensors.

Stacking containers

At stacking load-bearing locations, 40-foot containers are the standard unit length, and

45 ft, 48 ft, and 53 ft all stack at the 40 ft coupling width. Other units can be

stacked on top of 20 ft units only if there are two in a row and 20 ft units cannot be

stacked on top of 40 ft units, or any other larger container.

The coupling holes are all female and it takes a double male twist lock to securely mate

container stacks together. Larger containers

53 foot container

Introduced in 1989, the 53 ft shipping container is considered a High Cube container in that

it is 9 ft 6 in tall on the exterior. It is 1 ft taller than standard height containers.

It is 8 ft 6 in wide which makes it 6 in wider than standard containers. The bigger

boxes have 60% more capacity than standard 40-foot containers enabling shippers to consolidate

more cargo into fewer containers. The original domestic 53-foot box OTR containers were introduced

in 1989, but in November 2007 the first 53 foot ocean containers were introduced. All

new, reinforced 53-foot boxes are built specifically for international trade and designed to withstand

ocean voyages. According to APL, 53-foot containers could become the transport method of choice

for customers moving cargo. In March 2013 APL stated that it "no longer offers vessel

space for 53-foot ocean containers in its trans-Pacific services. It has struggled to

find sufficient amount of U.S. export cargo for them, while revenue on the eastbound leg

has not been sufficient to cover the costs of repositioning empties back to Asia."

Reporting mark

Each container is allocated a standardized ISO 6346 reporting mark, four characters long

ending in either U, J or Z, followed by six numbers and a check digit. The ownership code

for intermodal containers is issued by the Bureau International des Containers et du

Transport Intermodal, hence the name BIC-Code for the intermodal container reporting mark.

So far there exist only four-letter BIC-Codes ending in "U".

The placement and registration of BIC Codes is standardized by the commissions TC104 and

TC122 in the JTC1 of the ISO which are dominated by shipping companies. Shipping containers

are labelled with a series of identification codes that includes the manufacturer code,

the ownership code, usage classification code, UN placard for hazardous goods and reference

codes for additional transport control and security.

Following the extended usage of pallet-wide containers in Europe the EU had started the

Intermodal Loading Unit initiative. This showed advantages for intermodal transport of containers

and swap bodies. This led to the introduction of ILU-Codes defined by the standard EN 13044

which has the same format as the earlier BIC-Codes. The International Container Office BIC agreed

to only issue ownership codes ending with U, J or Z. The new allocation office of the

UIRR agreed to only issue ownership reporting marks for swap bodies ending with A, B, C,

D or K – companies having a BIC-Code ending with U can allocate an ILU-Code ending with

K having the same preceding digits. Since July 2011 the new ILU codes can be registered,

beginning with July 2014 all intermodal ISO containers and intermodal swap bodies must

have an ownership code and by July 2019 all of them must bear a standard-conforming placard.

Handling and transport

Containers can be transported by container ship, semi-trailer truck, sidelifter and freight

trains as part of a single journey without unpacking and they are transferred between

modes by container cranes at container terminals. Units can be secured during handling and in

transit using "twistlock" points located at each corner of the container. Every container

has a unique BIC code painted on the outside for identification and tracking, and is capable

of carrying up to 20–25 tonnes. Costs for transport are calculated in twenty-foot equivalent

units. Rail

When carried by rail, containers may be carried on flatcars or well cars. The latter are specially

designed for container transport, and can accommodate double-stacked containers. However

the loading gauge of a rail system may restrict the modes and types of container shipment.

The smaller loading gauges often found in European railroads will only accommodate single-stacked

containers. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, there are sections of the

rail network through which high-cube containers cannot pass, or can pass through only on well

cars. On the other hand, Indian Railways runs double-stacked containers on flatcars under

25 kV overhead electrical wires. In order to do this, the wire must be at least 7.45

metres above the track, but IR is able to do so because of its large loading gauge and

the extra stability provided by its 1,676 mm track. China Railways also runs double-stacked

containers under overhead wires, but must use well cars to do so, since the wires are

only 6.6 metres above the track and 1,435 mm does not provide adequate stability to run

double-stacked containers on flat cars. Ship

Each year an estimated 10,000 shipping containers fall into the sea; of these 10% are expected

to contain chemicals toxic to marine life. Securing loads in intermodal containers

There are many established methods and materials available to stabilize and secure cargo in

intermodal containers. Conventional restraint methods and materials such as steel strapping

and wood blocking & bracing have been around for decades and are still widely used. Polyester

strapping and lashing, synthetic webbings are also common today. Dunnage bags, also

known as "air bags" are used to help keep unit loads in place.

Flexi-bags can also be directly loaded, stacked in food-grade containers. Indeed their standard

shape fills the entire ground surface of a 20'ISO container.

Non-shipping uses

Containers have been used for other purposes at the end of their voyaging lives. Permanent

or semi-permanent placement for storage is common. A container has 8,000 lb of steel,

which takes 8,000 kWh of energy to melt down. Repurposing used shipping containers is increasingly

a practical solution to both social and ecological problems.

Shipping container architecture employs used shipping containers as the main framing of

modular home designs, where the steel may be an integrated part of the design, or be

camouflaged into a traditional looking home. They have also been used to make temporary

shops, cafes, and computer datacenters, e.g., the Sun Modular Datacenter.

The Russian 3M-54 Klub surface-to-surface missile can be launched from a platform based

on shipping containers, and transported as one.

Intermodal containers are not constructed for conversion to underground bunkers, as

the walls cannot sustain much lateral pressure, and will collapse. Also, the wooden floor

of many used containers could contain some fumigation residues, rendering them unsuitable

as confined spaces, such as for prison cells or bunkers. Cleaning or replacing the timber

floor can make these used containers habitable, with proper attention to such essential issues

as ventilation and insulation. See also

References

Further reading George, Rose. Ninety Percent of Everything:

Inside Shipping, the Invisible Industry That Puts Clothes on Your Back, Gas in Your Car,

and Food on Your Plate, describes typical sea voyage excerpt and text search

International Organization for Standardization, Freight containers, Volume 34 of ISO standards

handbook, International Organization for Standardization, 4th edition, 2006. ISBN 92-67-10426-8

Levinson, Marc. The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World

Economy Bigger, Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-691-12324-1

excerpt and text search Donovan, Arthur & Bonney, Joseph "The Box

That Changed The World", East Windsor, New Jersey, Commonwealth Business Media, 2006

ISBN 978-1-891131-95-0 External links

International Convention for Safe Containers