Abby Tang: This is lava.

艾比-唐。這是熔岩。

And this is also lava.

而這也是熔岩。

One's man-made,

一個是人造的。

and one's, well, coughed up by Mother Earth.

還有一個是，嗯，由地球母親咳出來的。

But both these scientists are working toward

但這兩位科學家都在努力實現

the exact same goal:

完全相同的目標。

figuring out how to predict the unpredictable.

弄清楚如何預測不可預測的情況。

Arianna Soldati: To be able to make the best decisions

阿麗亞娜-索爾達蒂能夠做出最好的決定

about how to keep people safe,

關於如何保證人們的安全。

it's important to be able to predict

預測是很重要的

what is lava going to do

岩漿要做什麼

once it starts flowing out of the vent.

一旦它開始從通風口流出來。

Abby: One-tenth of the world's population

艾比：世界人口的十分之一

lives within the danger zone of a lava flow,

生活在熔岩流的危險區域內。

which means knowing how lava works

這意味著瞭解岩漿的工作原理

and reacts to elements like water, metal, and ice is key.

並與水、金屬和冰等元素髮生反應是關鍵。

So on this episode of "Science Skills,"

是以，在這一集的 "科學技能 "中，我們可以看到

we're going to look at two ways scientists study lava,

我們要看一下科學家研究熔岩的兩種方法。

starting with DIY.

從DIY開始。

This huge furnace behind me

我身後的這個巨大的爐子

is Syracuse University's personal volcano

是雪城大學的個人火山。

and brainchild of an unlikely scientist and artist duo.

和一個不太可能的科學家和藝術家二人組的智慧結晶。

That's professors Jeff Karson and Bob Wysocki,

那是教授Jeff Karson和Bob Wysocki。

and they didn't feel like waiting

他們不喜歡等待

for a volcano to spit up lava.

為火山吐出岩漿。

So they decided to make their own.

所以他們決定自己製作。

Jeff: The project originated really

傑夫：這個項目的起源其實是

when Bob came into my office

當鮑勃來到我的辦公室

and said he wanted to make lava.

並說他想做岩漿。

I thought that was a pretty crazy suggestion at that time.

我認為這在當時是一個非常瘋狂的建議。

But the more we talked,

但我們談得越多。

the more we saw that he had

我們越是看到他有

a really good idea of what needed to be done.

一個關於需要做什麼的真正好主意。

Abby: And the first thing that needed to be done?

艾比：那麼需要做的第一件事是什麼？

Figure out what to make the lava in,

想出用什麼來製作熔岩。

which is where this came in.

這就是這個問題的由來。

The tilt furnace is really the statement piece

傾斜爐是真正的聲明作品

of the whole operation.

的整個行動。

It can hold hundreds of kilos of lava

它可以容納數百公斤的熔岩

and execute experiments about viscosity,

並執行關於粘度的實驗。

morphology, structures, and formations.

形態、結構和形成。

But she's a little bit finicky

但她有一點挑剔

when it comes to lava-making.

當涉及到熔岩製造時。

The furnace literally melts itself

爐子實際上是在融化自己

and tears itself apart over a very short period of time.

並在很短的時間內將自己撕碎。

Abby: These were originally made

艾比：這些是最初製作的

to melt bronze and aluminum,

用於熔化青銅和鋁。

but the Lava Project has repurposed one of them

但熔岩項目已經重新利用了其中的一個項目

to melt up to 800 pounds of billion-year-old basaltic rock

以融化高達800磅的十億年前的玄武岩

shipped all the way from Wisconsin.

從威斯康星州一路運來的。

The process takes hours.

這個過程需要幾個小時。

Bob and his team pile the rocks

鮑勃和他的團隊堆積岩石

into a receptacle called the Crucible,

進入一個叫做 "坩堝 "的容器。

turn up the furnace,

把爐子開大。

and gradually bring the rocks up to temperature.

並逐漸使岩石達到溫度。

If we were doing just lava and melting stuff,

如果我們只做熔岩和融化的東西。

the furnace would be on about medium

爐子會在大約中等溫度下

and we would just never turn it down or up.

而我們只是永遠不會把它調低或調高。

What temperature is medium?

什麼溫度是介質？

Medium is a sound out there that I hear in the flame.

中等的是外面的聲音，我在火焰中聽到。

I can adjust the furnace blindfolded

我可以蒙著眼睛調節爐子

and tell you what it's doing, and it's all sound.

並告訴你它在做什麼，而且都是健全的。

There's just a butterfly valve in here, and --

這裡只有一個蝶形閥，而且 --

[furnace rumbling]

[爐子隆隆作響]

Abby: Oh, you can hear it. Bob: That's it.

艾比：哦，你可以聽到它。鮑勃。就是這樣。

Abby: We looked this up later.

艾比：我們後來查了這個。

Medium is also somewhere between

中等的也是介於

2,000 and 2,400 degrees Fahrenheit.

2,000和2,400華氏度。

So pretty darn hot.

所以相當熱。

Which means these scientists really have to suit up.

這意味著這些科學家真的要穿上衣服了。

These suits made of aluminum can withstand radiant heat

這些由鋁製成的套裝可以抵禦輻射熱

up to 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit.

高達3,000華氏度。

Bob: We used to wear welding leathers,

鮑勃：我們曾經穿著焊接皮衣。

but it dries out from the heat.

但它因熱而變幹了。

When you start to smell barbecue, 'cause it's pigskin,

當你開始聞到烤肉的味道，因為是豬皮。

you knew that you were too close to something,

你知道你離某些東西太近了。

'cause you're cooking. Your clothing is cooking.

因為你在做飯。你的衣服在做飯。

How do you know you're too close with these guys?

你怎麼知道你和這些人走得太近了？

Bob: You don't. Abby: You don't?

鮑勃：你不知道。艾比：你不知道？

Bob: These are the spats.

鮑勃：這些是馬甲。

The apron, which I wear around my waist.

圍裙，我把它穿在腰間。

The jacket,

外套。

which, put your arms out.

其中，把你的手臂伸出來。

Right, because you don't need it in the back.

對，因為你不需要它在後面。

Abby: No. It's like campfire style.

艾比：不，這就像營火式。

Bob: Exactly. And it's just that.

鮑勃：沒錯。而且就是這樣。

Abby: Back half of me is cool, front's warm.

艾比：我的後半身是涼的，前面是暖的。

Bob: So there's that.

鮑勃：所以就這樣了。

And then the helmet,

然後是頭盔。

it looks like it's a regular tinted thing like sunglasses,

它看起來像一個普通的有色的東西，像太陽鏡。

but this is 24-karat gold.

但這是24K的黃金。

Abby: Ooh, fancy.

哦，真漂亮。

Bob: That is a sheet of it.

鮑勃：這是它的一張。

Abby: What is it about the gold?

艾比：關於黃金的問題是什麼？

Is it just the reflective quality?

這只是反射的品質嗎？

Bob: It's so highly reflective,

鮑勃：它是如此高度的反思。

and it's why you see satellites and stuff,

這就是為什麼你會看到衛星之類的東西。

why they have the gold foil on.

為什麼他們有金箔。

And is this really similar to some of the stuff

而這真的與一些東西相似嗎？

that volcanologists would use in the field, right?

火山學家會在現場使用，對嗎？

Same stuff.

同樣的東西。

Yeah, but maybe with a back?

是的，但也許有了背影？

Bob: They have a back on it.

鮑勃：他們在上面有一個背影。

Abby: Yeah, in case the volcano's behind them.

艾比：是的，以防火山在他們後面。

Do you want to show us how it works?

你想讓我們看看它是如何工作的嗎？

Yeah, let's go talk about this.

是的，讓我們去談談這個。

Do we need any of the gear?

我們是否需要任何的裝備？

It is sweltering! How hot is it up here?

太悶熱了!這裡有多熱？

Bob: Well, the bright yellow you see back there,

鮑勃：嗯，你在後面看到的亮黃色。

that's about 2,800 degrees Fahrenheit.

這大約是2800華氏度。

So right now the lava in there is too hot.

所以現在那裡的熔岩太熱了。

When we dump it out of here,

當我們把它甩出這裡的時候。

about the meter it falls from the spout to the trough

約一米，它從水口落到水槽中

and through the trough,

並穿過谷底。

we lose about 275 degrees Fahrenheit.

我們失去了大約275華氏度。

By the time it hits the end,

等到了最後。

we want to be at 2,150 Fahrenheit.

我們希望達到2150華氏度。

And that's the magic spot for the lava.

而這就是熔岩的神奇之處。

Abby: Researchers are looking for that sweet spot

艾比：研究人員正在尋找那個甜蜜點

between 1,600 and 2,200 degrees,

1,600至2,200度之間。

the range for natural lava.

天然熔岩的範圍。

Knowing the lava's temperature

瞭解熔岩的溫度

at what time and where is crucial.

在什麼時間和什麼地點是關鍵。

So the team has an array of 10 digital cameras

是以，該團隊有一個由10臺數碼相機組成的陣列

to capture 3D images of the flow,

以捕獲流動的三維影像。

and a thermal camera,

和一臺熱像儀。

which can read up to 3,600 degrees Fahrenheit.

其讀數可高達3600華氏度。

That way, researchers like Arianna Soldati

這樣，像Arianna Soldati這樣的研究人員

can analyze both the lava's movement and temperature,

可以同時分析熔岩的運動和溫度。

leading to a key piece of data.

導致了一個關鍵的數據。

Arianna: Viscosity is possibly

Arianna: 粘度可能是

the most important property in volcanology.

火山學中最重要的屬性。

It really controls everything,

它真的控制了一切。

from eruptive style to appearance of the flow.

從噴發方式到水流的外觀。

And the main physical property that controls viscosity

而控制粘度的主要物理特性是

is temperature.

是溫度。

The hotter something is, the less viscous it is,

東西越熱，它的粘性就越小。

and the cooler it is, the more viscous.

而且溫度越低，粘性越大。

So it's really important that we can tell

是以，我們可以告訴大家，這一點真的很重要。

what temperature the lava is,

熔岩的溫度是多少。

because we want to match that with the viscosity.

因為我們要將其與粘度相匹配。

Abby: With this, the team can study

艾比：有了這個，團隊可以研究

how different variables, like metal or crystals,

如何不同的變量，如金屬或晶體。

affect how fast the lava cools,

影響熔岩冷卻的速度。

and therefore its viscosity.

是以，它的粘度。

But there's the lab,

但是有一個實驗室。

and then there's the real world,

然後是現實世界。

where unplanned and unpredictable factors come into play.

在這種情況下，計劃外的和不可預測的因素就會發揮作用。

That's where this guy comes in.

這就是這傢伙進來的原因。

Ben Edwards: Well, this is a piece of the earth

本-愛德華茲。嗯，這是地球的一部分

that we call the mantle.

我們稱之為 "地幔"。

Abby: That's a piece of the mantle?!

那是壁爐的一部分？

Ben: This is a piece of the mantle.

本：這是一塊地幔。

And this is one of the sidelights

而這是其中一個側重點

that make some volcanoes incredibly important to study.

這使得一些火山的研究變得異常重要。

Abby: This is Ben Edwards,

這是本-愛德華茲。

and he likes to get lava data straight from the source.

而且他喜歡直接從源頭獲得熔岩數據。

Here's him collecting a sample from a flow in Russia

這是他在俄羅斯的一個流動中收集的樣本

back in 2013.

早在2013年。

As you can see, Ben's protective gear

正如你所看到的，本的保護裝備

has more coverage than what they use at Syracuse.

比他們在錫拉丘茲使用的覆蓋面更大。

Because sampling from a natural lava flow

因為從天然熔岩流中取樣

can be a 360-degree experience.

可以是一個360度的體驗。

If you're going next to a lava river to sample,

如果你要去熔岩河旁邊取樣。

even in this suit,

甚至在這起訴訟中。

like, I was doing this in Russia from a lava river

就像，我在俄羅斯的熔岩河上做這個事情

that's maybe 10, 15 meters wide.

這可能是10，15米寬。

And after being there for a minute or so

而在那裡呆了一分鐘左右後

making some measurements,

進行一些測量。

I could hear my Russian colleagues saying,

我可以聽到我的俄羅斯同事說。

"Ben, move back! You're smoking."

"本，向後移！你在抽菸。"

[laughing]

[笑聲]

But it was getting hot enough in the suit

但衣服裡已經夠熱了

that even after about 30 to 45 seconds,

那怕是在大約30到45秒之後。

I had to back up.

我不得不倒車。

Abby: When Ben's around to witness an eruption,

艾比：當本在身邊見證火山爆發的時候。

he's prepared to collect data.

他準備收集數據。

A lot of data.

大量的數據。

Ben: Am I going to focus on

本：我是不是要把重點放在

taking lots of lava temperatures?

採取大量的熔岩溫度？

Am I going to focus on getting lots of samples of lava?

我是不是要把重點放在獲取大量的熔岩樣本上？

Am I going to focus on using drones

我是否要專注於使用無人機

and trying to map very carefully

並試圖非常仔細地繪製地圖

how fast the lava's coming out?

岩漿湧出的速度有多快？

Abby: To pull a sample out of the flow,

艾比：從水流中抽出一個樣本。

Ben usually uses a rock hammer, but ...

本通常使用岩石錘，但......。

If I was trying to collect really hot samples,

如果我是想收集真正的熱點樣本。

I would probably use some sort of an iron bar

我可能會使用某種鐵棒

that wouldn't catch fire.

不會起火的。

Like, this is OK for short --

就像，這對短期來說是可以的 --

Abby: That's made of wood! Ben: Yeah.

艾比：那是木頭做的!本。是的。

Abby: Here's a clip of Ben's colleague Alexander Belousov

艾比：這裡有一個本的同事亞歷山大-貝盧索夫的片段

using an iron bar to collect a sample.

用鐵棒採集樣品。

Ben: He rests the bar on top of a rock,

本：他把酒吧放在一塊石頭上面。

and he uses a lever to pry the sample out.

他用一個槓桿來撬出樣品。

Because it's kind of nonintuitive.

因為它是一種非直覺性的。

It's a lot stickier than it looks.

它比看起來要粘稠得多。

If you're just watching it flow by, it's like,

如果你只是看著它流過，那就像。

"Wow, that must be pretty fluid,

"哇，這一定是很流暢的。

'cause it's moving pretty fast."

'因為它移動得很快。"

Abby: That dollop of forbidden honey

那一抹禁忌的蜂蜜

is then dumped into a bucket of water.

然後被倒入一桶水。

Not just to cool it down,

不僅僅是為了降溫。

but to cool it down fast, because ...

但要快速降溫，因為......。

Ben: As the sample cools naturally,

本：隨著樣品的自然冷卻。

it does produce these crystals.

它確實產生了這些晶體。

Abby: The crystals, yeah.

艾比：水晶，是的。

Ben: And if you want to see what was in the sample

本：如果你想看看樣品中的內容

as it was moving down the lava stream,

當它在熔岩流中移動時。

then you want to cool it like that

然後你要像這樣冷卻它

to kind of take all the heat out

把所有的熱量都帶走

and basically turn the heat off

並基本上將熱量關閉

so that you preserve the sample.

這樣你就能保留樣本。

And you preserve the crystal content

而且你保留了晶體的內容

and the sizes of crystals

和晶體的大小

that were actually in the active lava flow.

這是在活躍的熔岩流中實際存在的。

Abby: Crystal size impacts viscosity,

艾比：晶體大小影響粘度。

so extra growth would lead to inaccurate measurements.

是以，額外的增長將導致不準確的測量。

To take the temperature of that flow,

為該流量測溫。

Ben might use a handheld FLIR camera,

本可能會使用一個手持式FLIR相機。

like Arianna did in the lab,

就像阿麗亞娜在實驗室裡做的那樣。

or a four-channel data logger.

或一個四通道的數據記錄器。

Each one of these yellow things

這些黃色的東西中的每一個

is a separate thermal probe.

是一個單獨的熱探針。

So with this recorder,

所以有了這個錄音機。

I can record four temperatures at once.

我可以同時記錄四個溫度。

For example, if I'm interested in figuring out

例如，如果我有興趣弄清楚

how fast the lava's cooling, right?

熔岩冷卻的速度有多快，對嗎？

So here's my lava surface.

所以這裡是我的熔岩表面。

I might want to put one of these in, just barely in,

我可能想放一個這樣的東西，只是勉強放進去。

and the other one I might want to have a little bit deeper.

而另一個我可能想有一個更深一點的。

So I can put two of these together,

所以我可以把其中兩個放在一起。

and I'm measuring different temperatures now

而且我現在正在測量不同的溫度

in that same cooling surface.

在那個相同的冷卻表面。

Abby: But you probably won't get those probes back.

但你可能拿不回那些探針。

Ben: I've got wires that are buried in Kamchatka,

本：我有埋在堪察加半島的電線。

because once you get two feet of this

因為一旦你得到兩英尺的這個

underneath the lava flow,

在熔岩流下面。

you're not gonna get it back out.

你不可能把它弄出來。

Abby: That's not yours anymore.

那不再是你的了。

Ben: No. It's one of the great things

本：不，這是最偉大的事情之一。

about the Syracuse lava lab, right,

關於錫拉丘茲的熔岩實驗室，對。

'cause I do a lava flow there,

因為我在那裡做了一個熔岩流。

and in the end I take my big hammer

最後我拿著我的大錘子

and I recover my equipment.

和我恢復我的設備。

[laughing]

[笑聲]

Abby: If you don't have probes to spare,

艾比：如果你沒有探針備用。

you might try thermal-mapping the flow from above.