They're the ones who examine all the things doctors keep our health and check, and they spend years of training to do it.

他們是檢查醫生保持我們健康和檢查的所有東西的人，他們花了多年的訓練來做這件事。

But that wasn't always the case.

但這並不是一直以來的情況。

Medicine for most of the 19th century was completely different to how it is now.

在19世紀的大部分時間裡，醫學與現在的情況完全不同。

In America, there was virtually no regulation at all.

在美國，幾乎沒有任何監管。

Anybody could declare himself or herself to be a physician.

任何人都可以宣佈自己是醫生。

Most physicians graduated, never having practiced at the bedside, never having performed surgery on.

大多數醫生畢業後，從來沒有在床邊實踐過，從來沒有給人做過手術。

They probably never even seen a laboratory.

他們可能連實驗室都沒見過。

This was not a lucrative profession.

這不是一個賺錢的職業。

It didn't tend to attract people coming from money on.

它並不傾向於吸引人們從錢上來。

Very few people were willing to invest a lot of money in an education.

很少有人願意在教育上投入大量資金。

So basically it was a job no one really wanted to dio.

所以，基本上這是一份沒有人真正想dio的工作。

On top of that, medical science itself was still unsophisticated.

除此之外，醫學本身也還不成熟。

Many surgeons weren't totally sure would even caused infections.

許多外科醫生並不完全確定甚至會引起感染。

So to treat some of them, they often just cut off a person's limbs.

所以為了治療其中的一些人，他們往往是直接砍掉一個人的四肢。

No big deal.

沒什麼大不了的

There were also pretty neck about keeping their practice sterile.

對於保持自己的練習無菌，也是很有脖子的。

If you're a surgeon in the 18 sixties, the 18 seventies, you might well try and keep towards clean on the surgical table.

如果你是1860年代，1870年代的外科醫生，你可能會盡量保持手術檯上的清潔。

Clean ish.

乾淨的是。

Yep, yes, you're very likely to be operating in a leather apron, which is stained and encrusted with blood and other bodily fluids, which have accumulated over perhaps decades.

是的，是的，你很有可能穿著皮圍裙在操作，圍裙上沾滿了血跡和其他體液，這些血跡和體液可能已經積累了幾十年。

In fact, many surgeons would wear their bloody leather apron as a badge of honor because it revealed to everybody just how Maney operations you perform.

事實上，很多外科醫生都會把血淋淋的皮圍裙當做榮譽勳章來佩戴，因為它向大家透露了你的馬尼手術有多厲害。

It would take years before they learned how unsanitary this waas and before they decided.

他們要花好幾年的時間才能瞭解到這是多麼的不衛生，然後才會決定。

Hey, maybe we shouldn't do that.

嘿，也許我們不應該這樣做。

Up until then, doctors and scientists slowly began to prove that illnesses and infections were caused by microscopic organisms.

直到那時，醫生和科學家才開始慢慢證明，疾病和感染是由微觀生物引起的。

This idea called the germ theory.

這個觀點叫做胚芽理論。

It was a big deal of the time, but a lot of people didn't buy it.

這在當時是個大問題，但很多人並不買賬。

People would say there's absolutely no way that a tiny microscopic organism could possibly kill.

人們會說，一個微小的微觀生物體絕對不可能殺人。

And in the 18 forties he noticed that women who gave birth in one particular award they were dying much more commonly than the mothers who were giving birth in a nearby ward.

而在1840年代，他注意到，在某一獎項中分娩的婦女，她們的死亡比在附近病房分娩的母親更常見。

There was a big difference between these two awards in the first one doctors and medical students.

這兩個獎項在第一個醫生和醫學生之間有很大的區別。

We'd spent part of the day in the morgue on the rest of the day in deliveries.

我們今天有一部分時間是在停屍房裡度過的，其餘時間都在送貨。

They were passing these germs from the corpses to the birthing women, Andi leaving extraordinarily tragically high numbers of babies without a mother.

他們把這些病菌從屍體上傳給分娩的婦女，安迪留下了數量特別多的沒有母親的嬰兒，非常悲慘。

The other ward was run by nurses who did not participate in autopsies.

另一間病房由護士管理，她們不參與屍檢。

And that's why those mothers were far, far less often dying.

這也是為什麼那些母親遠遠地、遠遠地少死的原因。

Yeah, Semmelweis argues that some kind of living matter is killing these women on.

是的，塞梅爾韋斯認為，某種活物正在殺害這些婦女上。

The doctors were transferring it from the dead to the living, So we installed a bowl of disinfectant on, insisted that a lot of the carers washed their hands in it.

醫生是把它從死人身上轉移到活人身上，所以我們裝了一碗消毒液在上面，堅持讓很多護工在裡面洗手。

The rates of death plummeted.

死亡率急劇下降。

The sad thing is, people still didn't get on board with similar vices.

可悲的是，大家還是沒能跟上類似的惡習。

Argument about this living matter, but why?

爭論這個生命物質，但為什麼呢？

There are a lot of reasons, but one of them is that it was absolutely intolerable for a large number off physicians and obstetricians to recognize the bed unwittingly caused the deaths of hundreds or even thousands of women.

原因有很多，但其中一個原因是，大量的關醫生和產科醫生認識到床在不知不覺中造成了數百甚至上千名婦女的死亡，這是絕對不能容忍的。

Many of them just simply couldn't accept this.

他們中的很多人就是無法接受這個事實。

But by the 18 eighties, after more and more scientific proof, ah, lot of surgeons started accepting the fact that germs caused illness.

但是到了1880年代，經過越來越多的科學證明啊，很多外科醫生開始接受病菌致病的事實。

They even began to make some changes.

他們甚至開始做出一些改變。

They're starting to wash their hands.

他們開始洗手了。

They're also starting to use tools, which don't have any spaces where bacteria could gather.

他們也開始使用工具，這些工具沒有任何可以聚集細菌的空間。

You think of a classic scalpel, you'd have a wooden handle and then you'd have the metal blade.

你想想經典的手術刀，你會有一個木質手柄，然後你會有金屬刀片。

Any number of places in which bacteria could secrete themselves a men cause infection by the early 19 hundreds has stopped him.

任何數量的地方，細菌可以分泌自己一個男人導致感染的早期19百已停止他。

Also, toe wear latex gloves so surgery become safer.

此外，腳趾戴上乳膠手套，手術變得更加安全。

And it was in less than a generation that surgery was becoming revolutionized in this way.

而就是在不到一代人的時間裡，外科手術正在以這種方式成為革命。

And once physicians and scientists knew which germs are causing certain illnesses, they developed the first vaccines to target specific diseases and then antibiotics to treat infections and save a lot of limbs and some of ice.

而當醫生和科學家們知道是哪些病菌導致了某些疾病後，他們就研製出了第一種針對特定疾病的疫苗，然後又研製出了治療感染的抗生素，挽救了很多肢體和一些冰塊。

It wasn't until germ theory was fully established that people looked back and rediscovered some advice.

直到細菌理論完全確立，人們才回過頭來，重新發現了一些建議。

In the early 20th century, the late 19th century statues to him are erected all sorts of biographies, a written he's hailed as a great hero.

20世紀初，19世紀末給他立的雕像都是各種傳記，一寫他被譽為大英雄。

Want surgeons could guarantee a clean environment in which to operate the entire field of surgery just blossoms on.

想要外科醫生能保證手術環境的乾淨，整個手術領域就開花結果。

It becomes the most prestigious fields of medicine.

它成為醫學界最負盛名的領域。

He also see huge changes in the way doctors were trained.

他也看到了醫生培訓方式的巨大變化。

Yeah.

是啊。

By the early 20th century, over 100 medical schools were founded in the U.

到20世紀初，美國成立了100多所醫學院。

S.

S.

And training became more intensive.

而訓練也變得更加密集。

Medical students began to truly learn the science behind medicine.

醫學生開始真正學習醫學背後的科學知識。

It was the first time in human history that medical scientists really new.

這是人類歷史上第一次，醫學科學家真正新。