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  • Crash Course Philosophy is brought to you by Squarespace.

    哲學速成班由 Squarespace贊助播出

  • Squarespace: share your passion with the world.

    Squarespace: 和世界分享你的熱情

  • Aristotle once described humans asthe rational animal.”

    亞里斯多德曾將人類形容為「理性的動物」

  • Well, actually, he said thatman is the rational animal,” but we don’t have to

    痾...事實上他是說「男人是理性的動物」但他有性別歧視不代表

  • be sexist just because he was.

    我們必須效仿他

  • And if youve ever gotten into an argument with someone about religion or politics or which

    如果你曾經和人因為宗教、政治或者漢斯沃兄弟中

  • Hemsworth is the hottest, then youve experienced how irrational people can be about their opinions.

    哪一個最帥,你就會知道人們對於他們想法的堅持有多不理性

  • But what Aristotle meant is that rationality is our distinguishing characteristicit’s

    但亞里斯多德這句話的意思是理性是我們專有的特質

  • what sets us apart from the beasts.

    是一個使我們與其他野獸產生區隔的特質

  • And no matter how much you disagree with someone about God or Obama or Chris Hemsworth, you

    無論你有多不認同他人對於上帝、歐巴馬和克里斯·漢斯沃的想法

  • can at least grant that they are not beasts.

    至少你會承認他們不是野獸

  • Because, most of the time at least, people can be persuaded. By arguments.

    因為,大部份的時候,人是可以被說服的:藉由論證

  • You use arguments all the time -- in the comments, at family dinners, with your friends -- you

    你無時無刻都在利用論證:在影片下的評論、在和家人餐桌上、和朋友相處時

  • probably just don’t think of them the same way that philosophers do.

    你很可能只是對論證的想法和哲學家們不同

  • When you try and convince your parents to loan you the car, or when youre talking

    當你試圖說服你的父母借車給你、或當你和你的朋友談論速成班時

  • up Crash Course to your friends, you are using arguments. Thanks, by the way.

    你就在使用論證,順道一提,感謝推薦!

  • Each time you tell someone to do or believe something -- or when youre explaining why

    每當你要求他人相信或去做某件事,或當你在解釋妳為什摩

  • you do or believe something -- you are giving an argument.

    做某件事或相信某件事時,你就是再提出論證

  • The problem is, the vast majority of people aren’t really good at arguments.

    問題是,大部份的人並不擅長於論證

  • We tend to confuse making a good argument with, like, having witty comebacks, or just

    我們常常將提出好的論點和機智的應答還有

  • making your points more loudly and angrily, instead of building a case on a solid foundation

    說話比較憤怒大聲混為一談,而非把自己的論點建立在有

  • of logic. Which can be harder than it sounds.

    穩固根基的邏輯上。這做起來可比聽起來難!

  • But learning about arguments and strong reasoning will not only make you a better philosopher,

    但學會論證和有利的推論不但能讓你成為更好的哲學家

  • it will also set you up to be a more persuasive person. Someone who people will listen to.

    也能讓你成為更有說服力的人、讓人更願意傾聽的人

  • Someone who’s convincing.

    一個可信的人

  • So, yeah, these skills are beneficial no matter what you want to do with your life.

    所以無論你將來想做什麼,這個技巧都對你有幫助

  • So you might as well know how to argue properly.

    你也可能因此知道怎麼正確的辯論

  • [Theme Music]

  • If you want to learn how to argue, then you should probably start about 2400 years ago,

    如果你想知道怎麼辯論,可能要從2400年前說起

  • when Plato was laying out how reason can, and should, function in the human mind.

    當時柏拉圖提出了理性如何,而且必須運行於人類的心智之中

  • He believed that we all have what he called a tripartite soulwhat you might think

    他相信一個我們稱之為「靈魂三分說」的理論,你可以想成是

  • of as yourself,” or your psyche, divided into three parts.

    你的自我或你的心智被分成三個部分

  • First, there’s the rational, or logical part of the soul, which represents cool reason.

    第一部分是理性,靈魂中邏輯的部分代表著冷靜的理性

  • This is the aspect of your self that seeks the truth and is swayed by facts and arguments.

    這一部分的自我追尋著真理並由事實與論證支配

  • When you decide to stop eating bacon for two meals a day because, as delicious as it is,

    當你決定停止吃培根,因為即使它很好吃,它對你的身體不好

  • it’s bad for you, then you make that decision with the guidance of the rational part of your soul.

    這時就是你靈魂的理性部分引導你做出的決定

  • But then there’s the spirited aspect, often described as the emotional part of the self,

    另外靈魂中也有精神部分,被認為是自我的情感部分

  • although that doesn’t really quite capture it.

    不過說是情感並不完全精準

  • The spirited soul isn’t just about feeling -- it’s also about how your feelings fuel your actions.

    精神靈魂並不只是感覺上的,他同時也解釋你的感覺如何導致你的行動

  • It’s the part that responds in righteous anger at injustice, the part that drives your

    這一部分的靈魂使你對不公不義的事情義憤填膺,讓你充滿雄心壯志

  • ambition, and calls upon you to protect others.

    讓你想要保護其他人

  • It gives you a sense of honor and duty, and is swayed by sympathy.

    精神靈魂給予你榮譽感和責任感,由同情心支配

  • So if you decide to stop eating bacon because you just finished reading Charlotte’s Web,

    所以當你決定不吃培根因為你剛看完了《夏綠蒂的網》

  • and now youre in love with Wilbur, then youre being guided by the spirited part of your soul.

    愛上了裡面的小豬Wilbur,你就是受到了精神部的靈魂的引導做出的決定

  • But we share the next part of our soul with other animals, be they pig, or moose, or aardvark.

    但第三個部分的靈魂是我們和其他動物共有的,例如豬、麋鹿和土豚

  • The appetitive part is what drives you to eat, have sex, and protect yourself from danger.

    靈魂的情慾部分驅使我們去吃、去做愛、和保護自己遠離危險

  • It is swayed by temptations that are carnal, and visceral.

    他由肉體和內在的誘惑支配

  • So at those times when you go ahead and just EAT ALL THE BACON because it just smells so

    當你勇往直前吃了所有的培根只是因為他們聞起來太香了

  • dang good, the appetitive aspect of your soul is in control.

    就是你的情慾靈魂正在控制你

  • Now, Plato believed that the best human beings -- and I should point out here that Plato

    柏拉圖相信最好的人(這裏我們要指出的是柏拉圖

  • most definitely did believe that some people were better than others -- are always ruled

    肯定相信某些人比起其他人是「更好的人類」)永遠是被靈魂的

  • by the rational part of their soul, because it works to keep the spirited and the appetitive parts in check.

    理性部分所控制,因為理性靈魂能確保精神靈魂和情慾靈魂不要失控

  • People who allow themselves to be ruled by their spirited or appetitive selves are base,

    他相信那些讓自己被情慾或精神的自我控制的人則是比較低下

  • he believed, and not fully, properly human.

    不完全,不正派的人類

  • Now, most of us don’t buy into the concept of the tripartite soul anymore -- or the idea

    現在大部份的人已經不太相信這個靈魂三分說或是

  • that some humans are less human than others.

    相信有些人比起其他人是比較「不完全」的人類

  • But we do understand that were all motivated by physical desires, emotional impulses, and rational arguments.

    但我們都理解我們會被物質慾望、情感衝動和理性的論證激勵

  • And philosophers continue to agree with Plato that reason should be in the driver’s seat.

    許多哲學家也還是同意柏拉圖認為理性應該要處於主導地位的論點

  • So, how do you know if youre good at it? How can you test your reasoning?

    所以你要怎麼知道你是否很會運用理性?如何檢驗你的論證?

  • Well, let’s head over to the Thought Bubble for some Flash Philosophy.

    我們進入思想泡泡來點哲學快閃

  • Throughout this course, were going to apply our philosophical skills by pondering puzzles, paradoxes, and thought experiments.

    在這堂課中,我們將運用我們藉由思考謎題、悖論和思想實驗來運用我們的哲學技巧

  • Because remember: Philosophers love thinking about questions -- especially ones that don’t have ready answers.

    因為記住,哲學家喜歡思考問題,尤其是那些沒有現成答案的問題

  • So think of these exercises as philosophical wind-sprints -- quick tests of your mental abilities.

    你可以把它想成是一種哲學短跑競賽,一個能快速檢測你心智能力的小測驗

  • And here’s a doozy, from 20th century British thinker Bertrand Russell, one of the pioneers

    這裏有一個二十世紀英國思想家伯特蘭·羅素想出來的難題,他是

  • of what’s known as analytic philosophy.

    所謂分析哲學的先驅

  • Say there’s a town in which all men are required by law to be clean-shaven. This town

    有一座城裡,所有的人都被法律要求必須把鬍子剃光

  • has only one barber, a man, who must follow strict rules:

    這座城只有一個理髮師,他必須遵守以下規定:

  • Rule number one: He must shave all men who do not shave themselves.

    規定一、他必須幫所有「沒有幫自己剃鬍子的人」剃鬍子

  • Rule number two: He must not shave any man who does shave himself.

    規定二、他不能幫「幫自己剃鬍子的人」剃鬍子

  • It’s the nightmare of every libertarian and every mustachio’d hipster. But here’s the question:

    這絕對是每個自由主義者和蓄鬍嬉皮的惡夢,但這裡的問題是:

  • Does the barber shave himself?

    這位理髮師是否幫自己剃鬍子?

  • Cause think about it: The barber only shaves men who don’t shave themselves. So if he does

    想想看:理髮師只幫「不幫自己剃鬍的人」剃鬍,所以

  • shave himself, then he must not, because the barber’s not allowed to shave guys who shave themselves.

    如果他幫自己剃鬍,這是不可能的,因為他不被允許幫「幫自己剃鬍的人」剃鬍

  • But, if he doesn’t shave himself, then he has to be shaved by the barber, because that’s the law.

    但如果他不替自己剃鬍,他就必須讓理髮師剃鬍,因為這是規定

  • Russell came up with this puzzle to illustrate the fact that a group must always be a member of itself.

    羅素想出這個謎題以闡述一個事實:一個集合(group)必定包含一個成員(member)也就是自己

  • That means, in this case, thatall men who shave themselveshas to include every

    這代表,在這個情況中「所有幫自己刮鬍子的人」必須包含

  • guy who shaves himself, including the barber.

    每一個「幫自己刮鬍子的人」,包括這個理髮師

  • Otherwise, the logic that dictates the group’s existence just doesn’t hold up.

    否則,邏輯上聲稱這個集合存在的論證就不能成立

  • And if the barber is a logical impossibility, then he can’t exist, which means the reasoning

    如果這個理髮師在邏輯上是不可能的,他就不可能存在,也就是說

  • behind his existence is inherently flawed.

    他存在的推論有本質上的缺陷

  • And philosophy doesn’t tolerate flawed reasoning.

    而哲學家不會容忍有缺陷的推論

  • So, how do we make sure that were ruled by good, sound, not-flawed reason?

    所以我們該怎麼知道我們是被好的、健全的、無缺陷的推論所支配呢?

  • By perfecting the art of the argument.

    藉由努力雕琢自己辯論的藝術

  • An argument, in philosophy, isn’t just a shouting match.

    辯論,哲學上來說,並不是比誰說話大聲而已

  • Instead, philosophers maintain that your beliefs should always be backed up by reasons,

    相反的,哲學家認為你相信的事物永遠必須藉由論據支持

  • which we call premises.

    我們稱之為前提

  • Premises form the structure of your argument. They offer evidence for your belief, and you

    前提建構出你論證的架構,它們提供了你所信之事的證據,只要你想

  • can have as many premises as you like, as long as they support your conclusion, which

    你可以提出無限多的前提,只要它能支持你的結論即可,而該結論

  • is the thing that you actually believe.

    就是你所相信之事

  • So, let’s dissect the anatomy of an argument.

    我們來解析一下一個論證

  • There are actually several different species of arguments. Probably the most familiar,

    有很多種不同種類的論證,或許最廣為人知的

  • and the easiest to carry out, is the deductive argument.

    也是最容易進行的,就是演繹論證

  • The main rule of a deductive arguments is: if your premises are true, then your conclusion must be true.

    演繹論證的主要原則就是:如果前提為真,你的結論必為真

  • And knowing that something is actually true is very rare, and awesome.

    而知道某是真的為真事實上是相當少見的情況,但有的話就非常棒!

  • So, here’s a boiled-down version of a good deductive argument:

    這裡有一個精簡版本的優秀演繹論證:

  • Premise 1: All humans are mortal.

    前提一:所有人都難逃一死

  • Premise 2: Socrates is a human.

    前提二:蘇格拉底是人

  • Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.

    結論:蘇格拉底終究會死

  • This kind of reasoning, where one fact leads to another, is called entailment.

    這種論證,藉由一個事實帶到另一個事實,稱為蘊含(entailment)

  • Once we know that all humans are mortal, and that Socrates is a human, those facts entail that Socrates is mortal.

    當我們知道人類是會死的,而蘇格拉底是個人類,這些事實蘊含了蘇格拉底會死的事實

  • Deduction begins with the generalin this case, what we know about human mortalityand

    演繹法常從從普遍的事物開始,在這個例子中,我們都知道人類不免一死

  • reasons down to the specificSocrates in particular.

    並推論出普遍中的一個特定部分,也就是蘇格拉底,會死

  • What’s great about deductive arguments is that the truth of the premises must lead to

    演繹論證很棒的地方是前提為真必會導致

  • the truth of the conclusion.

    結論為真

  • When this happens, we say that the argument is validthere’s just no way for the

    當這種情況發生時,我們就能說這個論證是有效的(valid ),這時如果前提為真

  • conclusion to be false if the premises are true.

    結論不可能不為真

  • Now check out this argument:

    現在檢視一下下面這個論證:

  • All humans are mortal. Socrates is a human. Therefore, Socrates was Plato’s teacher

    所有人類都不免一死,蘇格拉底是人類,所以蘇格拉底是柏拉圖之師

  • That argument is invalid, because nothing about human mortality can prove that Socrates was Plato’s teacher.

    這個論證是無效的(invalid),因為人類不免一死的事實並無法證明蘇格拉底是柏拉圖的老師

  • As you might have noticed, there are plenty of mortal humans who never taught Plato.

    就如你可能發現的事實,有很多非永生的人類並沒有教過柏拉圖

  • What’s interesting, though, is that this argument does happen to have a true conclusion,

    有趣的是,即使如此,這個論證的結論卻恰巧為真

  • which leads us to another issue. And that is:

    這引導我們到另一個課題:

  • Validity is not the same as truth.

    有效性不代表真實性

  • Allvalidreally means is that if the premises are true, then your conclusion can’t be false.

    有效意義是指如果前提為真,你的結論不可能為假

  • But that doesn’t mean that your premises prove your conclusion to be correct.

    但不代表你的前提能證明你的結論是正確的

  • Like, in the case of whether Socrates was Plato’s teacher, the premises are true,

    例如在這個蘇格拉底是否為柏拉圖之師的例子中,前提為真

  • and the conclusion is true, but the argument is still not valid -- because the premises

    結論也為真,但論證還是無效的,因為它的前提

  • don’t in any way prove the conclusion. It just happens to be true.

    無法以任何方式證明他的結論,只是結論剛好正確而已

  • So, if your premises don’t guarantee the truth of your conclusion, then you can end up with some really crappy arguments.

    所以如果你的前提並沒有保證你的結論為真,你可能會做出一些很彆腳的論證

  • Like this one: - All cats are mammals

    例如:所有的貓都是哺乳類

  • - I’m a mammal - Therefore, I’m a cat

    我是個哺乳類,所以我是隻貓

  • As much as part of me would like to be my cat, this is invalid because the conclusion

    雖然我有一點想當我的貓,但這個論證是無效的,因為它的前提

  • doesn’t entail from the premisesat all.

    並完全不蘊含他的結論

  • I mean, all cats are mammals, but all mammals aren’t cats. Which means there are such

    我的意思是,所有的貓都是哺乳類,但並非所有哺乳類都是貓,也就是說

  • things as non-cat mammals, which I am just one example of.

    有一些叫做非貓哺乳類的東西存在,我就是一個例子

  • And it probably goes without saying, but you can have a perfectly valid argument and still have a false

    可能更不用說的是,你可以有一個完美有效的論證,但結論還是不為真

  • conclusion, if any of your premises are false. For example: - All humans have tails

    如果任何一個前提是錯的的話。例如:所有人類都有尾巴

  • - My brother John is a human - Therefore, John Green has a tail!

    我兄弟John是個人類,所以John有尾巴

  • The argument is totally valid! – Because the premises entail the conclusion! The reasoning totally stands up!

    這個論證完全是有效的,因為前提蘊含了結論!這個推論完全站得住腳!

  • It’s just that one of the premises is flawed.

    只不過其中一個前提是錯的

  • Since I’m reasonably certain that John doesn’t have a tail -- I’ve seen him in a bathing

    因為我相當肯定John並沒有尾巴,我看過他穿泳衣

  • suit -- this argument is not deductively sound.

    這不是個演繹上確固(sound)的論證

  • And a deductively sound argument is one that’s free of formal flaws or defects.

    演繹上確固的論證是沒有任何缺陷或瑕疵的

  • It’s an argument whose premises are all true, and that’s valid, which means its

    當有一個論證前提都為真,並且有效,意味著

  • conclusion is guaranteed to be true.

    結論一定為真

  • So, sound arguments should always be your goal.

    所以,確固的論證就是你的目標

  • The reason that deduction is prized by philosophers -- and lots of other important kinds of thinkers

    演繹法被哲學家和很多重要的思想家視為珍寶的原因

  • -- is that it’s the only kind of argument that can give you a real certainty.

    是因為這是唯一一種能給你確切答案的論證法

  • But it’s limited, because it only works if youre starting with known, true premises, which are hard to come by.

    但他還是有限制,因為它只能從你已知且為真的前提開始,而已知且為真的前提是很稀少的

  • And for what it’s worth, deductive truths are usually pretty obvious. They don’t tend

    而它有什麼價值?演繹出的事實通常非常明顯,它們

  • to lead us to startlingly new information, like the fact that I’m not a cat, or that John doesn’t have a tail.

    不會帶給我們驚人的訊息,像是我不是隻貓和John並沒有尾巴的事實

  • So instead of starting with premises that are already certain, like deduction does,

    所以除了從我們已確知的前提開始,例如演繹法之外

  • youre gonna have to know how to determine the truth of, and your confidence in, your premises.

    你必須知道如何分辨你的前提是否為真、並且獲取對你的前提的自信

  • Which means youre going to have to acquaint yourself with the other species of arguments,

    這表示你必須理解其他類型的論證

  • which were gonna do next time.

    我們下次會談到它們

  • But today, we talked about the value of reason, the structure of arguments, and we took a

    但今天,我們講到了理性的的價值、論證的結構、並深究了

  • close look at one kind of argument: deductive reasoning.

    其中一種論證法:演繹論證

  • This episode of Crash Course Philosophy is made possible by Squarespace. Squarespace

    這集哲學速成班由Squarespace贊助播出

  • is a way to create a website, blog or online store for you and your ideas. Squarespace

    Squarespace是一個能為你和你的點子創造出網站、部落格和網路商店的好途徑

  • features a user-friendly interface, custom templates and 24/7 customer support. Try Squarespace

    有使用者友善介面、自訂樣板和全天候的客戶支持,請在

  • at squarespace.com/crashcourse for a special offer.

    at squarespace.com/crashcourse試用Squarespace獲取而外好康

  • Crash Course Philosophy is produced in association with PBS Digital Studios. You can head over

    哲學速成班與公共電視網數位工作室合作撥出,你可以去他們的頻道

  • to their channel to check out amazing shows like The Art Assignment, The Chatterbox, and Blank on Blank.

    看看超棒的節目例如The Art Assignment, The Chatterbox和Blank on Blank

  • This episode of Crash Course was filmed in the Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio

    這集速成班由 Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney在 Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio攝製

  • with the help of all of these amazing people and our Graphics Team is Thought Cafe.

    並獲得這些好人的幫忙,我們的繪圖團隊是Thought Cafe

Crash Course Philosophy is brought to you by Squarespace.

哲學速成班由 Squarespace贊助播出

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